The repeatability of standard cranial measurements on dry bones and MSCT images.

This study examined if the cranial measurements from Data Collection Procedures for Forensic Skeletal Material 2.0 are repeatable when measured in dry bones and MSCT images and if the virtual measurements correspond to the physical ones. The sample included 33 dry crania imaged by MSCT. Two observers measured dry bones, two placed landmarks on 2D and 3D MSCT reconstructions, and one conducted measurements/landmarking on both media. One of the observers for each media repeated the measurements. Technical and relative technical error of measurement (TEM and rTEM) and percentage differences were calculated to examine the repeatability of measurements and compare measuring modalities. Intraobserver rTEM was above 1.5% for six bone measurements: FOB, ZOB, OBB, NLH, DKB, MDH (1.51%-4.87%) and for seven MSCT measurements: OBH, FOB, OBB, MDH, NLB, ZOB, DKB (1.57%-5.55%). The interobserver rTEM was above the acceptable level (>2%) for 11 measurements: PAC, NLH, OBB, EKB, MAL, FOB, NLB, OBH, ZOB, DKB, and MDH (2.01%-9.34%). The percentage differences were not systematically larger for measurements taken by the same user on both modalities than those obtained by different users on the same modality. When physical and MSCT measurements were tested on sex classification standards, the proportion of crania classified as male or female did not significantly differ (p > 0.05). The study showed that physical and virtual cranial measurements could be interchangeable for developing or applying sex estimation standards. However, clarifications and adaptations are necessary for measurements of mastoid, nasal, and orbital regions that did not meet the standard criteria.

Sexual dimorphism in mastoid process volumes measured from 3D models of dry crania from mediaeval Croatia.

3D analysis of skeletal volumes has become an important field in digital anthropology studies. The volume of the mastoid process has been proposed to display significant sexual dimorphism, but it has a complex shape and to date no study has quantified the full mastoid volume for sex estimation purposes. In this study we compared three different ways to isolate the volume of the mastoid process from digital 3D models of dry crania, and then evaluated the performance of the three different volume definitions for sex estimation purposes. A total of 170 crania (86 male, 84 females) excavated from five medieval Croatian sites were CT-scanned and used to produce 3D stereolitographic models. The three different isolation techniques were based on various anatomical landmarks and planes, as well as the anatomy of the mastoid process itself. Measurements of the three different mastoid volumes yielded different accuracies and precisions. Interestingly, anatomical structures were sometimes more useful than classical landmarks as demarcators of mastoid volume. For all three volume definitions, male mastoid volumes were significantly larger than female volumes, in both relative and absolute numbers. Sex estimation based on mastoid volume showed a slightly higher precision and better accuracy (71% correct classifications) than visual scoring techniques (67%) and linear distance measurements (69%) of the mastoid process. Sex estimation based on cranial size performed even better (78%), and multifactorial analysis (cranium size + mastoid volume) reached up to 81% accuracy. These results show that measurements of the mastoid volume represent a promising metric to be used in multifactorial approaches for sex estimation of human remains.

Sex estimation of the sternum by automatic image processing of multi-slice computed tomography images in a Croatian population sample: a retrospective study.

AIM: To determine the sexual dimorphism of the sternum with standard measurements in a contemporary Croatian population sample using multi-slice computed tomography (MSCT) and to compare the data obtained by an automatic with those obtained by a manual approach. METHODS: Five sternal measurements were obtained from MSCT images of 73 men and 55 women and three sternal indices were calculated. Custom image analysis software was developed for automatic segmentation and calculation of sternal measurements. Measurements of sexual dimorphism were automatically calculated and compared with manual measurements. RESULTS: All of the sternal measurements exhibited significant differences between men and women. The discrepancies between manual and automatic measurements ranged from 2.8% to 3.6% of the mean average values obtained with the automatic approach. The most accurate single-variable discriminant function was sternal body length (82.8%), the most accurate index was sternal area (89.1%), and the discriminant function using three variables was manubrium width, sternal body length, and sternal body width (90.6%). CONCLUSION: Sternal measurements are a reliable sex indicator and can be used in forensic casework. Computer-aided measurement methods can accelerate sex estimation and improve its precision and accuracy.

A case of hydrocephalus in a child from early modern period Zumberak, Croatia.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the etiology of a subadult skeleton exhibiting increased size of the neurocranium and upper face. MATERIALS: Skeletal remains of a child aged between 1.5-2 years from the Early Modern Period (14th -18th), Zumberak, Croatia. METHODS: Metric and volumetric data were collected, and CT with VRT reconstruction was employed. RESULTS: Metric analyses indicate that the neurocranium and upper face display increased size and volume. CONCLUSION: A diagnosis of the communicating form of hydrocephalus is suggested. SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first published case of the communicating form of hydrocephalus. LIMITATIONS: It is difficult to determine the specific etiology of this condition based on skeletal remains.

Dental calculus and isotopes provide direct evidence of fish and plant consumption in Mesolithic Mediterranean.

In this contribution we dismantle the perceived role of marine resources and plant foods in the subsistence economy of Holocene foragers of the Central Mediterranean using a combination of dental calculus and stable isotope analyses. The discovery of fish scales and flesh fragments, starch granules and other plant and animal micro-debris in the dental calculus of a Mesolithic forager dated to the end of the 8th millenium BC and buried in the Vlakno Cave on Dugi Otok Island in the Croatian Archipelago demonstrates that marine resources were regularly consumed by the individual together with a variety of plant foods. Since previous stable isotope data in the Eastern Adriatic and the Mediterranean region emphasises that terrestrial-based resources contributed mainly to Mesolithic diets in the Mediterranean Basin, our results provide an alternative view of the dietary habits of Mesolithic foragers in the Mediterranean region based on a combination of novel methodologies and data.

Assessing childhood stress in early mediaeval Croatia by using multiple lines of inquiry.

ABSTRACT: Childhood stress, using both subadult and adult remains from early mediaeval (8th-11th c. CE) sites on the eastern Adriatic coast is analysed in this report. A total of 242 individuals (83 subadults, 69 adult females, and 90 adult males) were assessed for the presence of linear enamel hypoplasia, cribra orbitalia, sub-periosteal new bone formation, and scurvy. In addition, the dietary profile of nine subadults was assessed by the analysis of carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes from bulk collagen. Over three quarters of individuals with preserved permanent dentition (44/56 or 78.6%) exhibited evidence of linear enamel hypoplasia, while analysis of the onset of this condition shows that all defects formed between 1.2 and 5.6 years of age. Cribra orbitalia was identified in 60 out of 190 individuals with preserved frontal bones (31.6%). Sub-periosteal new bone formation was recorded in 42.6% of analysed subadults (29/68) with fourteen cases still active at the time of death. Additionally, scurvy was identified in three subadults. The isotopic study of carbon and nitrogen suggests that diet of the analysed subadults was based on terrestrial C3 resources, with a varying input from C4 and a low intake of marine resources. The presented study strongly indicates that a large majority of the analysed individuals suffered from poor health during their childhood as indicated by the high frequencies of linear enamel hypoplasia, cribra orbitalia and sub-periosteal new bone formation.

The Stone Age Plague and Its Persistence in Eurasia.

Yersinia pestis, the etiologic agent of plague, is a bacterium associated with wild rodents and their fleas. Historically it was responsible for three pandemics: the Plague of Justinian in the 6th century AD, which persisted until the 8th century [1]; the renowned Black Death of the 14th century [2, 3], with recurrent outbreaks until the 18th century [4]; and the most recent 19th century pandemic, in which Y. pestis spread worldwide [5] and became endemic in several regions [6]. The discovery of molecular signatures of Y. pestis in prehistoric Eurasian individuals and two genomes from Southern Siberia suggest that Y. pestis caused some form of disease in humans prior to the first historically documented pandemic [7]. Here, we present six new European Y. pestis genomes spanning the Late Neolithic to the Bronze Age (LNBA; 4,800 to 3,700 calibrated years before present). This time period is characterized by major transformative cultural and social changes that led to cross-European networks of contact and exchange [8, 9]. We show that all known LNBA strains form a single putatively extinct clade in the Y. pestis phylogeny. Interpreting our data within the context of recent ancient human genomic evidence that suggests an increase in human mobility during the LNBA, we propose a possible scenario for the early spread of Y. pestis: the pathogen may have entered Europe from Central Eurasia following an expansion of people from the steppe, persisted within Europe until the mid-Bronze Age, and moved back toward Central Eurasia in parallel with human populations.

Age and sex related differences in normal pituitary gland and fossa volumes.

This study investigates the influence of age and sex on the volumes of the pituitary fossa and gland in 91 males and 108 females from Croatia who underwent magnetic resonance imaging of the endocranium for complaints not related to the pituitary gland. Isometric 3DT1 MPRAGE and 3DT1 MPR sequences were obtained on 1.5. Tesla and analysed on ISSA software. The volumes were obtained from the sum of all the areas multiplied by the thickness of the section. The mean volume of the pituitary fossa for males was 1111.1.4 mm3, for females 1354.4.2 mm3. Correlation analysis showed a significant negative correlation (P=0.0.09) between age of the patient, and pituitary volume. Age of the patient and free volume demonstrate a significant positive correlation (P=0.0.01) indicating that the amount of unoccupied space in the pituitary fossa significantly increases with age. Determining general morphological values, as well as variations of pituitary depth and the occupation of the fossa with the pituitary gland is of great help in everyday diagnostic and therapeutic approach.

Articular Eminence Inclination in Medieval and Contemporary Croatian Population

Articular eminence inclination (AEI) of the temporomandibular joint leads the mandible in its movements. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to determine AEI values in medieval (MP) and recent (RP) Croatian population. The study was carried out on two groups of specimens: first group with 30 MP human dry skulls, while the other, serving as control group consisted of 137 dry skulls. The AEI was measured on lateral digital skull images as the angle between the best fi t line drawn along the posterior wall of the articular eminence and the Frankfurt horizontal plane. No statistically significant (p>0.05) differences between the left and right side AEI were found between MP skulls and RP skulls. The mean value of MP AEI was 45.5˚, with a range of 20.9˚-64˚. The mean RP AEI value was steeper (61.99˚), with a range of 30˚-94˚. Difference between the mean MP and RP AEI values was statistically significant (p<0.05). Values of AEI vary a lot. Nonsignificant differences between the left and right side AEI confirmed the natural left-right side asymmetry. The values of AEI differ between the RP and MP groups, most probably due to different type of food consumption in medieval time, and consequently different masticatory loads and forces.

Differences in skeletal components of temporomandibular joint of an early medieval and contemporary Croatian population obtained by different methods.

The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is one of the most complex joints in the human body. The anatomical configuration of the TMJ allows for a large range of mandibular movements as well as transmission of masticatory forces and loads to the skull base. The measurements of the TMJ's anatomical structures and their interpretations contribute to the understanding of how pathological changes, tooth loss, and the type of diet (changing throughout human history) can affect biomechanical conditions of the masticatory system and the TMJ. The human TMJ and its constituent parts are still the subject of extensive investigation and comparisons of measurement methods are being made in order to determine the most precise and suitable measurement methods. The aim of this study has been to examine the morphology of skeletal components of TMJ of an early medieval population (EMP) in Croatia and to compare measured values with TMJ values of the contemporary Croatian population (CP) using various methods of measurement. The study was performed on 30 EMP specimens - human dry skulls, aged from 18 to 55 years, and 30 CP human dry skulls, aged from 18 to 65 years. Only fully preserved specimens (in measured areas) were included. The articular eminence (AE) inclination was measured in relation to the Frankfurt horizontal using two methods. Also, the AE height (glenoid fossa depth) and the length of the curved line - highest to the lowest point of the AE were measured. Measurements were performed on lateral skull photographs, panoramic radiographs and lateral cephalograms using VistaMetrix software on skull images. The results were statistically analyzed using SPSS statistical software. No statistically significant differences were obtained for AE parameters between the EMP and CP populations independent of age and gender. However, statistically significant (p<0.05) differences were revealed when comparing results of three different measuring methods. It could not be determined which of the used measurement methods is the most accurate due to the different results obtained as well as the presence of possible shortcomings and limitations of the various methods (measuring points are difficult to determine and/or they are not clearly observed in the investigated images to be precisely marked and measured; distortion and magnification of structures on radiographic images are present). Therefore, due to the limitations of this study, the obtained results could serve only as orienting information.

Evaluating sexual dimorphism in the human mastoid process: A viewpoint on the methodology.

The mastoid process is one of the most sexually dimorphic features in the human skull, and is therefore often used to identify the sex of skeletons. Numerous techniques for assessing variation in the size and shape of the mastoid process have been proposed and implemented in osteological research, but its complex form still presents difficulties for consistent and effective analysis. In this article, we compare the different techniques and variables that have been used to define, measure, and visually score sexual dimorphism in the mastoid process. We argue that the current protocols fail to capture the full morphological range of this bony projection, and suggest ways of improving and standardizing them, regarding both traditional and 3D-based approaches.

Tracing the genetic origin of Europe's first farmers reveals insights into their social organization.

Farming was established in Central Europe by the Linearbandkeramik culture (LBK), a well-investigated archaeological horizon, which emerged in the Carpathian Basin, in today's Hungary. However, the genetic background of the LBK genesis is yet unclear. Here we present 9 Y chromosomal and 84 mitochondrial DNA profiles from Mesolithic, Neolithic Starcevo and LBK sites (seventh/sixth millennia BC) from the Carpathian Basin and southeastern Europe. We detect genetic continuity of both maternal and paternal elements during the initial spread of agriculture, and confirm the substantial genetic impact of early southeastern European and Carpathian Basin farming cultures on Central European populations of the sixth-fourth millennia BC. Comprehensive Y chromosomal and mitochondrial DNA population genetic analyses demonstrate a clear affinity of the early farmers to the modern Near East and Caucasus, tracing the expansion from that region through southeastern Europe and the Carpathian Basin into Central Europe. However, our results also reveal contrasting patterns for male and female genetic diversity in the European Neolithic, suggesting a system of patrilineal descent and patrilocal residential rules among the early farmers.

Alagille syndrome case report: implications for forensic pathology and anthropology.

This case report offers a multidisciplinary interpretation of the violent death of a 4-year-old girl suffering from Alagille syndrome who died after a low-height fall that resulted in temporal bone fracture and a large epidural hematoma. The article evidences the macroscopical and microscopical characteristics of the syndrome, focusing especially on the skeletal findings that emerged during autopsy. In the case report, distinction is made between a possible accidental or non-accidental nature of the injuries and the characteristics of the injury have been interpreted in the light of the existing data on Alagille syndrome. In conclusion, the death was documented as accidental since abnormalities in the skeletal system evidenced during autopsy have predisposed the death of the child albeit through a very mild head trauma. The case report evidences the importance of studying features of skull macro- and microstructure in patients with Alagille syndrome, which have been, until now, underreported in literature and which might contribute to fracture vulnerability in these patients. Although rare, Alagille syndrome is a condition that should be known to forensic medicine practitioners and whose features and peculiarities must be taken into consideration in pediatric autopsy and suspected child abuse cases.

Two cases of neurogenic paralysis in medieval skeletal samples from Croatia.

Osteological changes consistent with neurogenic paralysis were observed in one male and one female skeleton recovered from two Croatian medieval sites - Virje and Zadar. Both skeletons display limb asymmetry typical of neurogenic paralysis that occurs during the childhood. The male skeleton displays atrophy and shortening of the right arm and the right femur, while the female skeleton exhibits identical changes on the right arm and both legs. Additionally, both skeletons exhibit scoliotic changes of the spine, and the female skeleton also displays bilateral hip dysplasia. Differential diagnosis included disorders such as cerebral palsy, poliomyelitis, cerebrovascular accident, and Rasmussen's encephalitis. These are the first cases of neurogenic paralysis (cerebral palsy and/or paralytic poliomyelitis) identified in Croatian archeological series. The Virje skeleton is only the third case of hemiplegia identified from archeological contexts (first with spinal scoliosis), while the Zadar skeleton represents the first case of triplegia reported in the paleopathological literature.

Mathematical approximation of fibular malleolus curvature.

While there are several manuscripts describing the articular surfaces of the ankle joint and the fibula itself, there is no study describing the outer surface and the degree of curvature of the fibular malleolus. This paper aims to approximate the sagital curvature of the outer surface of the lateral malleolus mathematically. Such data would facilitate the design of the anatomic plate that can be used for the ostheosynthesis of the fibular malleolus fracture. 30 males who were examined in the emergency department due to ankle sprains, where they underwent a standard anteroposterior x-ray of the ankle in the neutral position were recruited. The radiographs which revealed no bony injury were digitized and statistically processed. A mathematical function for each separate fibula was obtained through the processing of the digitized x-rays. When all the functions were applied to one graph, common traits of all fibulas were noted. The mean value of all functions was obtained and it corresponds to the polynomial function of degree 6. Mathematical approximation of the curvature is a simple and reliable method that can be applied to other ellipsoid human bone structures besides the ankle, thus being a valuable method in anthropometric, radiological and virtual geometric calculations.

Sex determination by discriminant function analysis of the tibia for contemporary Croats.

Previous studies have demonstrated that populations differ from each other in size and proportion, and that these differences can affect metric assessment of sex. This paper establishes standards for determining sex from fragmentary and complete tibiae in the modern Croatian population. Measurements were taken on 180 tibiae (109 male and 71 female) from positively identified victims of the 1991-1995 War in Croatia. Six standard dimensions: length of the tibia (CML), maximum epiphyseal breadth of the proximal tibia (MPEB), maximum epiphyseal breadth of the distal tibia (MDEB), maximum diameter of the tibia at the nutrient foramen (MDNF), transverse diameter of the tibia at the nutrient foramen (TDNF), and circumference of the tibia at the nutrient foramen (CNF), were taken and subjected to different discriminant function analyses. The highest level of accuracy (91.1%) in the analyzed data set was achieved employing the variables: maximum epiphyseal breadth of the proximal tibia, maximum epiphyseal breadth of the distal tibia, maximum diameter of the tibia at the nutrient foramen, transverse diameter of the tibia at the nutrient foramen, and circumference of the tibia at the nutrient foramen. The second highest level of accuracy (90.6%) was achieved using a combination of only three variables: maximum epiphyseal breadth of the proximal tibia, maximum diameter of the tibia at the nutrient foramen, and circumference of the tibia at the nutrient foramen. The lowest accuracy (84.4%) was obtained when only one variable (maximum diameter of the tibia at the nutrient foramen) was employed. The results of this study show that the modern Croatian tibia is a good skeletal component for determining sex. Standardized coefficients of the discriminant functions generated in this study support the results of previous studies that found that breadth dimensions provide better separation of the sexes than length.

Retrospective analysis of free-fall fractures with regard to height and cause of fall.

Free-fall fractures represent a specific form of blunt force trauma that can be hard to interpret because of the numerous factors that affect it. The aim of this study is to focus on skeletal injury patterns resulting from free-falls and to analyse the relationship between specific skeletal fractures, and the height and cause (accidental vs. suicidal) of the fall. A total of 179 autopsy reports of fatal free-falls from known heights were analysed at the Department of Forensic Medicine and Criminalistics, in Rijeka, Croatia. The location, type and frequency of fractures, as well as the number and distribution of fractured regions were analysed with regard to height and cause of fall. Height was found to be the major factor influencing fracture patterns in free-falls. In our sample, the frequencies of thoracic fractures, fractures to the extremities and those to the pelvis increased with height. Head fractures show no such relationship. However, types of fractures recorded in different anatomical regions, including the cranium, differ between height groups suggesting different injury mechanisms in each. Victims of falls generally sustained fractures in more than one body region, and the number of injured regions correlates significantly with height. Although no statistical difference was found in the number of fractured regions or frequency of fractures between accidental fallers and suicidal jumpers, jumpers showed a significantly higher number of bilateral extremity fractures when compared to victims of accidental falls. Logistic regression analyses also demonstrate a significant relationship between lower extremity fractures, and the cause of the fall. Our results highlight the need for further investigations of the influence that behaviour and height have in free-fall fractures.

Frequency and patterning of bone trauma in the late medieval population (13th-16th century) from Dugopolje, southern Croatia.

The aim of this paper is to test the hypothesis of an increased level of interpersonal violence in Dugopolje during the late medieval period as testified by written sources. In order to accomplish this, an analysis and comparison of frequencies and patterning of long bone and craniofacial fractures between sex and age categories in the Dugopolje skeletal sample was performed. In total 209 excellently preserved adult skeletons were analysed: 111 males and 98 females. The total long bone fracture frequency is 1.5% (29/1910) with a significantly higher frequency in males compared to females. Most of the long bone injuries occurred as a result of accidents, probably due to rugged mountainous terrain, while a certain portion of trauma resulted from deliberate violence. Significantly higher fracture frequencies in males could be a result of a strict sexual division of labour where males performed more physically demanding and risky tasks, as witnessed by historical sources. 26 out of 119 complete adult crania (21.8%) exhibit skeletal trauma with significantly higher frequencies in males. Perimortem trauma was observed in one individual while antemortem healed sharp force lesions were registered in five individuals (all males). The predominance of frontal craniofacial injuries, as well as the presence ofperimortem trauma and sharp force lesions, suggests the presence of deliberate violence in this community. Although the indicators of deliberate violence were recorded predominantly in males, suggesting that intentional violence in Dugopolje was exclusively males' prerogative, the presence of nasal fracture in a female skeleton might point to a male towards female violence. Presented bioarchaeological data are in accordance with the written documents thus corroborating the claims of an increased level of deliberate interpersonal violence in the late medieval population from Dugopolje.

Bone fractures as indicators of intentional violence in the eastern Adriatic from the antique to the late medieval period (2nd-16th century AD).

To test the historically documented hypothesis of a general increase in deliberate violence in the eastern Adriatic from the antique (AN; 2nd-6th c.) through the early medieval (EM; 7th-11th c.) to the late-medieval period (LM; 12th-16th c.), an analysis of the frequency and patterning of bone trauma was conducted in three skeletal series from these time periods. A total of 1,125 adult skeletons-346 from the AN, 313 from the EM, and 466 from the LM series-were analyzed. To differentiate between intentional violence and accidental injuries, data for trauma frequencies were collected for the complete skeleton, individual long bones, and the craniofacial region as well as by type of injury (perimortem vs. antemortem). The results of our analyses show a significant temporal increase in total fracture frequencies when calculated by skeleton as well as of individuals exhibiting one skeletal indicator of deliberate violence (sharp force lesions, craniofacial injuries, "parry" fractures, or perimortem trauma). No significant temporal increases were, however, noted in the frequencies of craniofacial trauma, "parry" fractures, perimortem injuries, or of individuals exhibiting multiple skeletal indicators of intentional violence. Cumulatively, these data suggest that the temporal increase in total fracture frequencies recorded in the eastern Adriatic was caused by a combination of factors that included not only an increase of intentional violence but also a significant change in lifestyle that accompanied the transition from a relatively affluent AN urban lifestyle to a more primitive rural medieval way of life.

Periodontal diseases at the transition from the late antique to the early mediaeval period in Croatia.

OBJECTIVE: We tested the hypothesis that the transition from the late antique to the early mediaeval period in Croatia had a negative impact on the periodontal health. METHODS: 1118 skulls were examined for dental calculus, alveolar bone resorption, fenestrations, dehiscences and root furcation involvement. RESULTS: The prevalence of teeth with calculus varied from 40.7% in the LA sample of continental parts of Croatia to 50.3% in the LA sample of Adriatic Croatia. The prevalence of alveolar bone resorption ranged between 21.2% in the EM sample from continental Croatia and 32.3% in the LA sample from Adriatic Croatia. The prevalence of individuals with alveolar bone dehiscences varied from 8.6% in the LA sample from continental Croatia up to 15.0% in the EM sample from Adriatic Croatia. The prevalence of individuals with alveolar bone fenestrations varied from 21.5% in the LA sample from Adriatic Croatia up to 36.2% in the LA sample from continental Croatia. The prevalence of individuals with exposed root bifurcations or trifurcations varied from 9.0% in the EM sample from Adriatic Croatia up to 20.7% in the EM sample from continental Croatia. Statistically significant differences were found between samples. CONCLUSION: The transition from the late antique to the early mediaeval period in Croatia did not have a negative impact on periodontal health. Studies of periodontal health of ancient populations should be performed to provide a better and more reliable reconstruction of living conditions in the past.