Overcoming Paradoxical Kinase Priming by a Novel MNK1 Inhibitor.

Targeting the kinases MNK1 and MNK2 has emerged as a valuable strategy in oncology. However, most of the advanced inhibitors are acting in an adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-competitive mode, precluding the evaluation of different binding modes in preclinical settings. Using rational design, we identified and validated the 4,6-diaryl-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-3-amine scaffold as the core for MNK inhibitors. Signaling pathway analysis confirmed a direct effect of the hit compound EB1 on MNKs, and in line with the reported function of these kinases, EB1 only affects the growth of tumor but not normal cells. Molecular modeling revealed the binding of EB1 to the inactive conformation of MNK1 and the interaction with the specific DFD motif. This novel mode of action appears to be superior to the ATP-competitive inhibitors, which render the protein in a pseudo-active state. Overcoming this paradoxical activation of MNKs by EB1 represents therefore a promising starting point for the development of a novel generation of MNK inhibitors.

Autophagy-induced senescence is regulated by p38α signaling.

Apoptosis and senescence are two mutually exclusive cell fate programs that can be activated by stress. The factors that instruct cells to enter into senescence or apoptosis are not fully understood, but both programs can be regulated by the stress kinase p38α. Using an inducible system that specifically activates this pathway, we show that sustained p38α activation suffices to trigger massive autophagosome formation and to enhance the basal autophagic flux. This requires the concurrent effect of increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production and the phosphorylation of the ULK1 kinase on Ser-555 by p38α. Moreover, we demonstrate that macroautophagy induction by p38α signaling determines that cancer cells preferentially enter senescence instead of undergoing apoptosis. In agreement with these results, we present evidence that the induction of autophagy by p38α protects cancer cells from chemotherapy-induced apoptosis by promoting senescence. Our results identify a new mechanism of p38α-regulated basal autophagy that controls the fate of cancer cells in response to stress.

Regulation of death receptor signaling by the autophagy protein TP53INP2.

TP53INP2 positively regulates autophagy by binding to Atg8 proteins. Here, we uncover a novel role of TP53INP2 in death-receptor signaling. TP53INP2 sensitizes cells to apoptosis induced by death receptor ligands. In keeping with this, TP53INP2 deficiency in cultured cells or mouse livers protects against death receptor-induced apoptosis. TP53INP2 binds caspase-8 and the ubiquitin ligase TRAF6, thereby promoting the ubiquitination and activation of caspase-8 by TRAF6. We have defined a TRAF6-interacting motif (TIM) and a ubiquitin-interacting motif in TP53INP2, enabling it to function as a scaffold bridging already ubiquitinated caspase-8 to TRAF6 for further polyubiquitination of caspase-8. Mutations of key TIM residues in TP53INP2 abrogate its interaction with TRAF6 and caspase-8, and subsequently reduce levels of death receptor-induced apoptosis. A screen of cancer cell lines showed that those with higher protein levels of TP53INP2 are more prone to TRAIL-induced apoptosis, making TP53INP2 a potential predictive marker of cancer cell responsiveness to TRAIL treatment. These findings uncover a novel mechanism for the regulation of caspase-8 ubiquitination and reveal TP53INP2 as an important regulator of the death receptor pathway.

Publisher Correction: MSK1 regulates luminal cell differentiation and metastatic dormancy in ER+ breast cancer.

In the version of this Article originally published, the boxes framing the two plots in Fig. 1g were misaligned from the axes due to a technical error. This has now been corrected in all versions of the Article.

Regulation of Mammary Luminal Cell Fate and Tumorigenesis by p38α.

Mammary stem and progenitor cells are essential for mammary gland homeostasis and are also candidates for cells of origin of mammary tumors. Here, we have investigated the function of the protein kinase p38α in the mammary gland using mice that delete this protein in the luminal epithelial cells. We show that p38α regulates the fate of luminal progenitor cells through modulation of the transcription factor RUNX1, an important controller of the estrogen receptor-positive cell lineage. We also provide evidence that the regulation of RUNX1 by p38α probably involves the kinase MSK1, which phosphorylates histone H3 at the RUNX1 promoter. Moreover, using a mouse model for breast cancer initiated by luminal cells, we show that p38α downregulation in mammary epithelial cells reduces tumor burden, which correlates with decreased numbers of tumor-initiating cells. Collectively, our results define a key role for p38α in luminal progenitor cell fate that affects mammary tumor formation.

MSK1 regulates luminal cell differentiation and metastatic dormancy in ER+ breast cancer.

For many patients with breast cancer, symptomatic bone metastases appear after years of latency. How micrometastatic lesions remain dormant and undetectable before initiating colonization is unclear. Here, we describe a mechanism involved in bone metastatic latency of oestrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer. Using an in vivo genome-wide short hairpin RNA screening, we identified the kinase MSK1 as an important regulator of metastatic dormancy in breast cancer. In patients with ER+ breast cancer, low MSK1 expression associates with early metastasis. We show that MSK1 downregulation impairs the differentiation of breast cancer cells, increasing their bone homing and growth capacities. MSK1 controls the expression of genes required for luminal cell differentiation, including the GATA3 and FOXA1 transcription factors, by modulating their promoter chromatin status. Our results indicate that MSK1 prevents metastatic progression of ER+ breast cancer, suggesting that stratifying patients with breast cancer as high or low risk for early relapse based on MSK1 expression could improve prognosis.

Induction of oxidative metabolism by the p38α/MK2 pathway.

Adequate responses to environmental stresses are essential for cell survival. The regulation of cellular energetics that involves mitochondrial energy production and oxidative stress is central in the process of stress adaptation and response. The p38α signalling pathway plays a key role in the response to stress stimuli by orchestrating multiple cellular processes. However, prolonged activation of the p38α pathway results in impaired cell proliferation and can lead to cell death. Here we use a system to specifically activate p38α signalling and show that sustained activation of this pathway suffices to induce important metabolic changes, including high dependence on glucose for cell survival, increased consumption of glutamine, enhanced respiration rate and elevated production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS). Moreover, we provide evidence that increased production of mitochondrial superoxide as a consequence of elevated mitochondria activity, contributes to the p38α reduced cell survival triggered by sustained p38α activation. We also show that the p38α-activated kinase MAPKAPK2 (MK2) plays an important role orchestrating the observed metabolic changes. Our results illustrate a new function of p38α signalling in the regulation of cellular metabolism, which may lead to cell death upon persistent activation of the pathway.