Oxidant stress and skeletal muscle glucose transport: roles of insulin signaling and p38 MAPK.

Oxidative stress can impact the regulation of glucose transport activity in a variety of cell lines. In the present study, we assessed the direct effects of an oxidant stress on the glucose transport system in intact mammalian skeletal muscle preparations. Type IIb (epitrochlearis) and type I (soleus) muscles from insulin-sensitive lean Zucker rats were incubated in 8 mM glucose for 2 h in the absence or presence of 100 mU/ml glucose oxidase to produce the oxidant hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) (60-90 microM). Glucose transport, glycogen synthase activity, and metabolic signaling factors were then assessed. H(2)O(2) significantly (p < 0.05) activated basal glucose transport and glycogen synthase activities and increased insulin receptor tyrosine phosphorylation, insulin receptor substrate-1 associated with the p85 subunit of phosphatidylinositol-3' kinase (PI3-kinase), and Ser(473) phosphorylation of Akt in both muscle types. This induction of glucose transport by the oxidant stress was prevented by the PI3-kinase inhibitor wortmannin. The oxidant stress also significantly increased phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) and 5'-AMP-dependent protein kinase. Interestingly, selective inhibition of p38 MAPK using A304000 substantially reduced the activation of glucose transport induced by the oxidant stress. These results support a direct role for oxidative stress in the activation of the glucose transport system in mammalian skeletal muscle and indicate that this process involves engagement of and possible interactions between the PI3-kinase-dependent signaling pathway and activation of p38 MAPK.

Selective angiotensin II receptor antagonism enhances whole-body insulin sensitivity and muscle glucose transport in hypertensive TG(mREN2)27 rats.

Essential hypertension is frequently associated with insulin resistance of skeletal muscle glucose transport, and angiotensin II (ANGII) can contribute to the pathogenesis of both conditions. The male heterozygous TG(mREN2)27 rat (TGR) harbors the mouse transgene for renin, exhibits local tissue elevations in ANGII and is an excellent model of both hypertension and insulin resistance associated with defective insulin signaling. The present study was designed to assess the specific role of ANGII in the insulin resistance of the male heterozygous TGR. TGRs were treated with either vehicle or the ANGII (AT(1)-specific) receptor antagonist, irbesartan (50 mg/kg body weight), for 21 consecutive days. Compared with vehicle-treated TGRs, whole-body insulin sensitivity was increased 35% (P < .05) in the irbesartan-treated group, and insulin-mediated glucose transport was increased (P < .05) in both type IIb epitrochlearis (80%) and type I soleus (59%) muscles after irbesartan treatment. Moreover, glycogen synthase activation due to insulin was increased 58% (P < .05) in the soleus of the irbesartan-treated TGRs. However, no significant improvements were observed for functionality of insulin-signaling elements (tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin receptor and insulin receptor substrate 1 [IRS1], IRS1 associated with the p85 regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase, and Ser473 of Akt) in muscle of irbesartan-treated animals, except for a 25% increase (P < .05) in IRS1 tyrosine phosphorylation in soleus. Collectively, these data indicate that the improvements in whole-body and skeletal muscle insulin action after long-term antagonism of ANGII action in TGRs occur independently of modulation of the functionality of these insulin-signaling elements.

Voluntary exercise training enhances glucose transport but not insulin signaling capacity in muscle of hypertensive TG(mREN2)27 rats.

Male heterozygous TG(mREN2)27 rats (TGR) overexpress a murine renin transgene, display marked hypertension, and have insulin resistance of skeletal muscle glucose transport and insulin signaling. We have shown previously that voluntary exercise training by TGR improves insulin-mediated skeletal muscle glucose transport (Kinnick TR, Youngblood EB, O'Keefe MP, Saengsirisuwan V, Teachey MK, and Henriksen EJ. J Appl Physiol 93: 805-812, 2002). The present study evaluated whether this training-induced enhancement of muscle glucose transport is associated with upregulation of critical insulin signaling elements, including insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, Akt, and glycogen synthase kinase-3. TGR remained sedentary or ran spontaneously in activity wheels for 6 wk, averaging 7.1 +/- 0.8 km/day by the end of week 3 and 4.3 +/- 0.5 km/day over the final week of training. Exercise training reduced total abdominal fat by 20% (P < 0.05) in TGR runners (2.64 +/- 0.01% of body weight) compared with sedentary TGR controls (3.28 +/- 0.01%). Insulin-stimulated (2 mU/ml) glucose transport activity in soleus muscle was 36% greater in TGR runners compared with sedentary TGR controls. However, the protein expression and functionality of tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin receptor and IRS-1, IRS-1 associated with the p85 regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, and Ser473 phosphorylation of Akt were not altered by exercise training. Only insulin-stimulated glycogen synthase kinase-3beta Ser9 phosphorylation was increased (22%) by exercise training. These results indicate that voluntary exercise training in TGR can enhance insulin-mediated glucose transport in skeletal muscle, as well as reduce total abdominal fat mass. However, this adaptive response in muscle occurs independently of modifications in the proximal elements of the insulin signaling cascade.

Acute selective glycogen synthase kinase-3 inhibition enhances insulin signaling in prediabetic insulin-resistant rat skeletal muscle.

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) has been implicated in the multifactorial etiology of skeletal muscle insulin resistance in animal models and in human type 2 diabetic subjects. However, the potential molecular mechanisms involved are not yet fully understood. Therefore, we determined if selective GSK3 inhibition in vitro leads to an improvement in insulin action on glucose transport activity in isolated skeletal muscle of insulin-resistant, prediabetic obese Zucker rats and if these effects of GSK3 inhibition are associated with enhanced insulin signaling. Type I soleus and type IIb epitrochlearis muscles from female obese Zucker rats were incubated in the absence or presence of a selective, small organic GSK3 inhibitor (1 microM CT118637, Ki < 10 nM for GSK3alpha and GSK3beta). Maximal insulin stimulation (5 mU/ml) of glucose transport activity, glycogen synthase activity, and selected insulin-signaling factors [tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin receptor (IR) and IRS-1, IRS-1 associated with p85 subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, and serine phosphorylation of Akt and GSK3] were assessed. GSK3 inhibition enhanced (P <0.05) basal glycogen synthase activity and insulin-stimulated glucose transport in obese epitrochlearis (81 and 24%) and soleus (108 and 20%) muscles. GSK3 inhibition did not modify insulin-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of IR beta-subunit in either muscle type. However, in obese soleus, GSK3 inhibition enhanced (all P < 0.05) insulin-stimulated IRS-1 tyrosine phosphorylation (45%), IRS-1-associated p85 (72%), Akt1/2 serine phosphorylation (30%), and GSK3beta serine phosphorylation (39%). Substantially smaller GSK3 inhibitor-mediated enhancements of insulin action on these insulin signaling factors were observed in obese epitrochlearis. These results indicate that selective GSK3 inhibition enhances insulin action in insulin-resistant skeletal muscle of the prediabetic obese Zucker rat, at least in part by relieving the deleterious effects of GSK3 action on post-IR insulin signaling. These effects of GSK3 inhibition on insulin action are greater in type I muscle than in type IIb muscle from these insulin-resistant animals.

Defective insulin signaling in skeletal muscle of the hypertensive TG(mREN2)27 rat.

Essential hypertension is frequently associated with insulin resistance of skeletal muscle glucose transport, with a potential role of angiotensin II in the pathogenesis of both conditions. The male heterozygous TG(mREN2)27 rat harbors the mouse transgene for renin, exhibits local elevations in angiotensin II, and is an excellent model of both hypertension and insulin resistance. The present study was designed to investigate the potential cellular mechanisms for insulin resistance in this hypertensive animal model, including an assessment of elements of the insulin-signaling pathway. Compared with nontransgenic, normotensive Sprague-Dawley control rats, male heterozygous TG(mREN2)27 rats displayed elevated (P < 0.05) fasting plasma insulin (74%), an exaggerated insulin response (108%) during an oral glucose tolerance test, and reduced whole body insulin sensitivity. TG(mREN2)27 rats also exhibited decreased insulin-mediated glucose transport and glycogen synthase activation in both the type IIb epitrochlearis (30 and 46%) and type I soleus (22 and 64%) muscles. Importantly, there were significant reductions (approximately 30-50%) in insulin stimulation of tyrosine phosphorylation of the insulin receptor beta-subunit and insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1), IRS-1 associated with the p85 subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, Akt Ser473 phosphorylation, and Ser9 phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta in epitrochlearis and soleus muscles of TG(mREN2)27 rats. Soleus muscle triglyceride concentration was 25% greater in the transgenic group compared with nontransgenic animals. Collectively, these data provide the first evidence that the insulin resistance of the hypertensive male heterozygous TG(mREN2)27 rat can be attributed to specific defects in the insulin-signaling pathway in skeletal muscle.

Interactions of exercise training and alpha-lipoic acid on insulin signaling in skeletal muscle of obese Zucker rats.

We have shown previously (Saengsirisuwan V, Kinnick TR, Schmit MB, and Henriksen EJ. J Appl Physiol 91: 145-153, 2001) that the antioxidant R-(+)-alpha-lipoic acid (R-ALA), combined with endurance exercise training (ET), increases glucose transport in insulin-resistant skeletal muscle in an additive fashion. The purpose of the present study was to investigate possible cellular mechanisms responsible for this interactive effect. We evaluated the effects of R-ALA alone, ET alone, or R-ALA and ET in combination on insulin-stimulated glucose transport, protein expression, and functionality of specific insulin-signaling factors in soleus muscle of obese Zucker (fa/fa) rats. Obese animals remained sedentary, received R-ALA (30 mg.kg body wt(-1).day(-1)), performed ET (daily treadmill running for < or =60 min), or underwent both R-ALA treatment and ET for 15 days. R-ALA or ET individually increased (P < 0.05) insulin-mediated (5 mU/ml) glucose transport (2-deoxyglucose uptake) in soleus muscle by 45 and 68%, respectively, and this value was increased to the greatest extent (124%) in the combined treatment group. Soleus insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1 protein was significantly increased by R-ALA alone (30%) or ET alone (31%), and a further enhancement (55%) was observed after the combination treatment in the obese animals. Enhanced levels of IRS-1 protein expression after individual or combined interventions were significantly correlated with insulin action on glucose transport activity (r = 0.597, P = 0.0055). Similarly, insulin-mediated IRS-1 associated with the p85 regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase was increased by R-ALA (317%) and ET (319%) and to the greatest extent (435%) (all P < 0.05) by the combination treatment. These results indicate that the improvements of insulin action in insulin-resistant skeletal muscle after R-ALA or ET, alone and in combination, were associated with increases in IRS-1 protein expression and IRS-1 associated with p85.

Enhanced insulin action on glucose transport and insulin signaling in 7-day unweighted rat soleus muscle.

Hindlimb suspension (HS), a model of simulated weightlessness, enhances insulin action on glucose transport in unweighted rat soleus muscle. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that these changes in glucose transport in 3- and 7-day HS soleus of juvenile, female Sprague-Dawley rats were due to increased functionality of insulin signaling factors, including insulin receptor (IR), IR substrate-1 (IRS-1), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-kinase), and Akt. Insulin-stimulated (2 mU/ml) glucose transport was significantly (P < 0.05) enhanced in 3- and 7-day HS soleus by 59 and 113%, respectively, compared with weight-bearing controls. Insulin-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of IR and Ser(473) phosphorylation of Akt was not altered by unweighting. Despite decreased (34 and 64%) IRS-1 protein in 3- and 7-day HS soleus, absolute insulin-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of IRS-1 was not diminished, indicating relative increases in IRS-1 phosphorylation of 62 and 184%, respectively. In the 7-day HS soleus, this was accompanied by increased (47%) insulin-stimulated IRS-1 associated with the p85 subunit of PI3-kinase. Interestingly, the enhanced insulin-stimulated glucose transport in the unweighted soleus was not completely inhibited (89-92%) by wortmannin, a PI3-kinase inhibitor. Finally, protein expression and activation of p38 MAPK, a stress-activated serine/threonine kinase associated with insulin resistance, was decreased by 32 and 18% in 7-day HS soleus. These results indicate that the increased insulin action on glucose transport in the 7-day unweighted soleus is associated with increased insulin signaling through IRS-1 and PI3-kinase and decreased p38 MAPK protein expression. However, PI3-kinase-independent mechanisms must also play a small role in this adaptive response to HS.

Effects of stevioside on glucose transport activity in insulin-sensitive and insulin-resistant rat skeletal muscle.

Stevioside (SVS), a natural sweetener extracted from Stevia rebaudiana, has been used as an antihyperglycemic agent. However, little is known regarding its potential action on skeletal muscle, the major site of glucose disposal. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of SVS treatment on skeletal muscle glucose transport activity in both insulin-sensitive lean (Fa/-) and insulin-resistant obese (fa/fa) Zucker rats. SVS was administered (500 mg/kg body weight by gavage) 2 hours before an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Whereas the glucose incremental area under the curve (IAUC(glucose)) was not affected by SVS in lean Zucker rats, the insulin incremental area under the curve (IAUC(insulin)) and the glucose-insulin index (product of glucose and insulin IAUCs and inversely related to whole-body insulin sensitivity) were decreased (P<.05) by 42% and 45%, respectively. Interestingly, in the obese Zucker rat, SVS also reduced the IAUC(insulin) by 44%, and significantly decreased the IAUC(glucose) (30%) and the glucose-insulin index (57%). Muscle glucose transport was assessed following in vitro SVS treatment. In lean Zucker rats, basal glucose transport in type I soleus and type IIb epitrochlearis muscles was not altered by 0.01 to 0.1 mmol/L SVS. In contrast, 0.1 mmol/L SVS enhanced insulin-stimulated (2 mU/mL) glucose transport in both epitrochlearis (15%) and soleus (48%). At 0.5 mmol/L or higher, the SVS effect was reversed. Similarly, basal glucose transport in soleus and epitrochlearis muscles in obese Zucker rats was not changed by lower doses of SVS (0.01 to 0.1 mmol/L). However, these lower doses of SVS significantly increased insulin-stimulated glucose transport in both obese epitrochlearis and soleus (15% to 20%). In conclusion, acute oral SVS increased whole-body insulin sensitivity, and low concentrations of SVS (0.01 to 0.1 mmol/L) modestly improved in vitro insulin action on skeletal muscle glucose transport in both lean and obese Zucker rats. These results indicate that one potential site of action of SVS is the skeletal muscle glucose transport system.

Interactions of conjugated linoleic acid and lipoic acid on insulin action in the obese Zucker rat.

The fatty acid conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and the antioxidant R-(+)-alpha-lipoic acid (R-ALA) individually enhance glucose tolerance and insulin action on skeletal muscle glucose transport in the insulin-resistant obese Zucker rat. To date, no study has assessed the potential interactions between these 2 interventions in treating insulin resistance. The present study was designed to determine whether chronic treatment with CLA and R-ALA in combination would enhance skeletal muscle glucose transport to a greater extent than either intervention individually. CLA, R-ALA, or a combination treatment of R-ALA and CLA were administered to female obese Zucker rats for 20 days at low or high doses. Whereas low-dose R-ALA (10 mg/kg body weight) alone did not alter muscle glucose transport, low-dose CLA (0.3 g/kg) induced a significant increase (38%, P <.05) in insulin-mediated glucose transport in epitrochlearis, but not in soleus. Low-dose combination therapy brought about the greatest enhancement of insulin-mediated glucose transport in epitrochlearis (77%) and soleus (54%), with the latter effect being associated with a 50% reduction in protein carbonyls (an index of tissue oxidative stress) and a 33% diminution in muscle triglycerides. High-dose treatments with CLA (1.5 g/kg), R-ALA (50 mg/kg), and the combination of CLA and R-ALA elicited increases in insulin-mediated glucose transport in epitrochlearis (57%, 58%, and 77%) and soleus (32%, 35%, and 54%). However, whereas the individual high-dose treatments with CLA and R-ALA reduced protein carbonyls (63% and 49%) and triglycerides (29% and 28%) in soleus, no further reductions were observed with the high-dose combination treatment groups. These findings support a significant interaction between low doses of CLA and R-ALA for enhancement of insulin action on skeletal muscle glucose transport, possibly via reductions in muscle oxidative stress and in lipid storage.