Salivary cortisol as a predictor of socioemotional adjustment during kindergarten: a prospective study.

This study, based on a sample of 172 children, examined the relation between average afternoon salivary cortisol levels measured at home at age 4.5 years and socioemotional adjustment a year and a half later, as reported by mothers, fathers, and teachers. Cortisol levels were hypothesized to be positively associated with withdrawal-type behaviors (e.g., internalizing, social wariness) and inversely related to approach-type behaviors, both negative and positive (e.g., externalizing, school engagement). Higher cortisol levels at age 4.5 predicted more internalizing behavior and social wariness as reported by teachers and mothers, although child gender moderated the relation between cortisol and mother report measures. An inverse relation was found between boys' cortisol levels and father report of externalizing behavior. A marginal inverse relation was found between child cortisol levels and teacher report of school engagement. Behavior assessed concurrently with cortisol collection did not account for the prospective relations observed,suggesting that cortisol adds uniquely to an understanding of behavioral development.

Autonomic reactivity and psychopathology in middle childhood.

BACKGROUND: Better indicators are needed for identifying children with early signs of developmental psychopathology. AIMS: To identify measures of autonomic nervous system reactivity that discriminate children with internalising and externalising behavioural symptoms. METHOD: A cross-sectional study of 122 children aged 6--7 years examined sympathetic and parasympathetic reactivity to standardised field-laboratory stressors as predictors of parent- and teacher-reported mental health symptoms. RESULTS: Measures of autonomic reactivity discriminated between children with internalising behaviour problems, externalising behaviour problems and neither. Internalisers showed high reactivity relative to low-symptom children, principally in the parasympathetic branch, while externalisers showed low reactivity, in both autonomic branches. CONCLUSIONS: School-age children with mental health symptoms showed a pattern of autonomic dimorphism in their reactivity to standardised challenges. This observation may be of use in early identification of children with presyndromal psychopathology.

Timing of initial exposure to maternal major depression and children's mental health symptoms in kindergarten.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the influence on child mental health symptoms of the timing of initial exposure to maternal major depression or whether the timing is associated with 'pure' or co-occurring internalising and externalising symptoms. AIMS: To address these issues, while also taking account of child gender and family socio-economic status. METHOD: In a prospective community-based study, 421 kindergarten teachers rated children's symptoms. Previous assessments of maternal major depression indicated whether children were first exposed during infancy, in the toddler/pre-school period, or never. RESULTS: Exposure during infancy was associated with high internalising symptoms, especially when co-occurring with high externalising symptoms. Initial exposure in the toddler/pre-school years increased the risk of 'pure' externalising symptoms among girls. CONCLUSIONS: The association of child mental health symptoms with the timing of initial exposure to maternal depression highlights the need for effective prevention and intervention strategies addressed to the developmental issues of each period.

Derivation and prediction of temperamental types among preschoolers.

The number and nature of temperamental types in 488 children aged 3 years 6 months was examined on the basis of a broad set of temperamental characteristics, including positive and negative emotionality and the attentional and behavioral control domains. Configural frequency analysis methods showed clear support for two temperament types: controlled-nonexpressive and noncontrolled-expressive. These types showed meaningful differences against external criteria related to a wide range of problem behaviors from the emotional, social, and attentional domains. The reports of problem behaviors were obtained contemporaneously from fathers and caregivers. These findings replicated a year later when children were aged 4 years 6 months. Furthermore, the findings showed that infant and toddler-age temperamental characteristics differentiated these preschool-aged types. The authors discuss the implications of the results for a categorical view of temperament-personality.

Recollections of parental behaviour, adult attachment and mental health: mediating and moderating effects.

BACKGROUND: Attachment theory posits links between early experiences with parents, adult relationships and adult mental health, but does not specify whether these are independent, mediating, or moderating effects. METHODS: Associations of parent's behaviour on the Parental Bonding Instrument, adult attachment styles and three dimensions of mental health were investigated in a large sample of women and men. RESULTS: Men and women with secure styles recalled higher levels of care from both parents than those with fearful styles. Maternal and paternal control were more consistent predictors of increased distress for men than for women. Fearful and preoccupied adult styles were associated with higher levels of distress in both men and women. While adult styles had few mediating effects on the association of parental behaviour and mental health, interactions between the fearful style and parental variables suggested that this form of insecurity sometimes accentuated the impact of high parental care or low paternal control on mental health in both men and women; among women, however, the secure style seemed to buffer somewhat the negative effect of high parental control. CONCLUSION: Although the amount of variance explained by either parental behaviour or adult styles was modest, patterns of moderating effects of adult styles on associations between parental behaviour and mental health suggested that both continuity and discontinuity principles can be applied to understanding these links.

Adaptation to community relocation: the interactive influence of psychological resources and contextual factors.

This longitudinal study examined the interactive influences of psychological resources and contextual factors on short-term adaptation to community relocation in a sample of older women (N = 102, mean age = 71.6). The effects of three psychological resources (environmental mastery, autonomy, and personal growth) and three contextual factors (pressure to move, difficulty of the move, and unexpected gains experienced) on emotional reactions to relocation were examined. The pattern of findings suggests that women with greater psychological resources were more resilient in the face of negative circumstances but that the emotional "boost" of unexpected gains was greatest for women with lower premove resources. These results underscore the importance of considering event-relevant psychological resources and contextual factors and including both negative and positive aspects of the adaptational process.