Migration and Morphology of Colloidal Gel Clusters in Cylindrical Channel Flow.

We report the cluster-level structural parameters of colloidal thermogelling nanoemulsions in channel flow as a function of attractive interactions and local shear stress. The spatiotemporal evolution of the gel microstructure is obtained by directly visualizing the dispersed phase near the edge of a cylindrical channel. We observe the flow of the nanoemulsion gels in a range of radial positions (r) and shear stresses between 70 and 220 Pa, finding that the r-dependent cluster sizes are due to a balance between shear forces that yield bonds and attractive interactions that rebuild the inter-colloid bonds. In addition, the largest clusters appear to be affected by confinement and accumulate toward the central axis of the channel, resulting in a volume fraction gradient. Cluster size and volume fraction variabilities are most prominent when the attractive interactions are the strongest. Specifically, a distinct transition from sparse, fluidized clusters near the walls to concentrated, large clusters toward the center is observed. These two structural states coincide with a velocity-based transition from higher shear rates near the walls to lower shear rates toward the center of the channel. We find a compounding effect where larger gel clusters, formed under strong attractions and low shear stresses, are susceptible to shear-induced migration that intensifies r-dependent heterogeneity and deviations in the flow behavior from predictive models.

United States wildlife and wildlife product imports from 2000-2014.

The global wildlife trade network is a massive system that has been shown to threaten biodiversity, introduce non-native species and pathogens, and cause chronic animal welfare concerns. Despite its scale and impact, comprehensive characterization of the global wildlife trade is hampered by data that are limited in their temporal or taxonomic scope and detail. To help fill this gap, we present data on 15 years of the importation of wildlife and their derived products into the United States (2000-2014), originally collected by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. We curated and cleaned the data and added taxonomic information to improve data usability. These data include >2 million wildlife or wildlife product shipments, representing >60 biological classes and >3.2 billion live organisms. Further, the majority of species in the dataset are not currently reported on by CITES parties. These data will be broadly useful to both scientists and policymakers seeking to better understand the volume, sources, biological composition, and potential risks of the global wildlife trade.

Infectious disease and economics: The case for considering multi-sectoral impacts.

Beyond the public health impacts of regional or global emerging and endemic infectious disease events lay wider socioeconomic consequences that are often not considered in risk or impact assessments. With rapid and extensive international travel and trade, such events can elicit economic shock waves far beyond the realm of traditional health sectors and original geographical range of a pathogen. While private sector organizations are impacted indirectly by these disease events, they are under-recognized yet effective stakeholders that can provide critical information, resources, and key partnerships to public and private health systems in response to and in preparation for potential infectious disease events and their socioeconomic consequences.

One Health Economics to confront disease threats.

Global economic impacts of epidemics suggest high return on investment in prevention and One Health capacity. However, such investments remain limited, contributing to persistent endemic diseases and vulnerability to emerging ones. An interdisciplinary workshop explored methods for country-level analysis of added value of One Health approaches to disease control. Key recommendations include: 1. systems thinking to identify risks and mitigation options for decision-making under uncertainty; 2. multisectoral economic impact assessment to identify wider relevance and possible resource-sharing, and 3. consistent integration of environmental considerations. Economic analysis offers a congruent measure of value complementing diverse impact metrics among sectors and contexts.

Wildlife hosts for OIE-Listed diseases: considerations regarding global wildlife trade and host-pathogen relationships.

The expanding international wildlife trade, combined with a lack of surveillance for key animal diseases in most countries, represents a potential pathway for transboundary disease movement. While the international wildlife trade represents over US $300 billion per year industry involving exchange of billions of individual animals, animal products, and plants as traditional medicines, meat from wild animals, trophies, live exotic pets, commercial products and food, surveillance and reporting of OIE-Listed diseases in wildlife are often opportunistic. We reviewed peer-reviewed literature for reports of 73 OIE-Listed terrestrial animal diseases in wild animals and found 528 possible wild animal hosts using our methodology. Not all host-pathogen relationships indicate that a particular species serves an epidemiologically significant role in the transmission of disease, but improved reporting of infections in wild animals along with clinical and pathological findings would contribute to improved One Health risk assessments.

Rapid Response to Evaluate the Presence of Amphibian Chytrid Fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) and Ranavirus in Wild Amphibian Populations in Madagascar.

We performed a rapid response investigation to evaluate the presence and distribution of amphibian pathogens in Madagascar following our identification of amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Bd) and ranavirus in commercially exported amphibians. This targeted risk-based field surveillance program was conducted from February to April 2014 encompassing 12 regions and 47 survey sites. We simultaneously collected amphibian and environmental samples to increase survey sensitivity and performed sampling both in wilderness areas and commercial amphibian trade facilities. Bd was not detected in any of 508 amphibian skin swabs or 68 water filter samples, suggesting pathogen prevalence was below 0.8%, with 95% confidence during our visit. Ranavirus was detected in 5 of 97 amphibians, including one adult Mantidactylus cowanii and three unidentified larvae from Ranomafana National Park, and one adult Mantidactylus mocquardi from Ankaratra. Ranavirus was also detected in water samples collected from two commercial amphibian export facilities. We also provide the first report of an amphibian mass-mortality event observed in wild amphibians in Madagascar. Although neither Bd nor ranavirus appeared widespread in Madagascar during this investigation, additional health surveys are required to disentangle potential seasonal variations in pathogen abundance and detectability from actual changes in pathogen distribution and rates of spread. Accordingly, our results should be conservatively interpreted until a comparable survey effort during winter months has been performed. It is imperative that biosecurity practices be immediately adopted to limit the unintentional increased spread of disease through the movement of contaminated equipment or direct disposal of contaminated material from wildlife trade facilities. The presence of potentially introduced strains of ranaviruses suggests that Madagascar's reptile species might also be threatened by disease. Standardized population monitoring of key amphibian and reptile species should be established with urgency to enable early detection of potential impacts of disease emergence in this global biodiversity hotspot.

Global avian influenza surveillance in wild birds: a strategy to capture viral diversity.

Wild birds play a major role in the evolution, maintenance, and spread of avian influenza viruses. However, surveillance for these viruses in wild birds is sporadic, geographically biased, and often limited to the last outbreak virus. To identify opportunities to optimize wild bird surveillance for understanding viral diversity, we reviewed responses to a World Organisation for Animal Health-administered survey, government reports to this organization, articles on Web of Knowledge, and the Influenza Research Database. At least 119 countries conducted avian influenza virus surveillance in wild birds during 2008-2013, but coordination and standardization was lacking among surveillance efforts, and most focused on limited subsets of influenza viruses. Given high financial and public health burdens of recent avian influenza outbreaks, we call for sustained, cost-effective investments in locations with high avian influenza diversity in wild birds and efforts to promote standardized sampling, testing, and reporting methods, including full-genome sequencing and sharing of isolates with the scientific community.

First evidence of amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) and ranavirus in Hong Kong amphibian trade.

The emerging infectious amphibian diseases caused by amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Bd) and ranaviruses are responsible for global amphibian population declines and extinctions. Although likely to have been spread by a variety of activities, transcontinental dispersal appears closely associated with the international trade in live amphibians. The territory of Hong Kong reports frequent, high volume trade in amphibians, and yet the presence of Bd and ranavirus have not previously been detected in either traded or free-ranging amphibians. In 2012, a prospective surveillance project was conducted to investigate the presence of these pathogens in commercial shipments of live amphibians exported from Hong Kong International Airport. Analysis of skin (Bd) and cloacal (ranavirus) swabs by quantitative PCR detected pathogen presence in 31/265 (11.7%) and in 105/185 (56.8%) of amphibians, respectively. In addition, the water in which animals were transported tested positive for Bd, demonstrating the risk of pathogen pollution by the disposal of untreated wastewater. It is uncertain whether Bd and ranavirus remain contained within Hong Kong's trade sector, or if native amphibians have already been exposed. Rapid response efforts are now urgently needed to determine current pathogen distribution in Hong Kong, evaluate potential trade-associated exposure to free-ranging amphibians, and identify opportunities to prevent disease establishment.

Pathogens, pests, and economics: drivers of honey bee colony declines and losses.

The Western honey bee (Apis mellifera) is responsible for ecosystem services (pollination) worth US$215 billion annually worldwide and the number of managed colonies has increased 45% since 1961. However, in Europe and the U.S., two distinct phenomena; long-term declines in colony numbers and increasing annual colony losses, have led to significant interest in their causes and environmental implications. The most important drivers of a long-term decline in colony numbers appear to be socioeconomic and political pressure on honey production. In contrast, annual colony losses seem to be driven mainly by the spread of introduced pathogens and pests, and management problems due to a long-term intensification of production and the transition from large numbers of small apiaries to fewer, larger operations. We conclude that, while other causal hypotheses have received substantial interest, the role of pests, pathogens, and management issues requires increased attention.

Zoonotic viruses associated with illegally imported wildlife products.

The global trade in wildlife has historically contributed to the emergence and spread of infectious diseases. The United States is the world's largest importer of wildlife and wildlife products, yet minimal pathogen surveillance has precluded assessment of the health risks posed by this practice. This report details the findings of a pilot project to establish surveillance methodology for zoonotic agents in confiscated wildlife products. Initial findings from samples collected at several international airports identified parts originating from nonhuman primate (NHP) and rodent species, including baboon, chimpanzee, mangabey, guenon, green monkey, cane rat and rat. Pathogen screening identified retroviruses (simian foamy virus) and/or herpesviruses (cytomegalovirus and lymphocryptovirus) in the NHP samples. These results are the first demonstration that illegal bushmeat importation into the United States could act as a conduit for pathogen spread, and suggest that implementation of disease surveillance of the wildlife trade will help facilitate prevention of disease emergence.

Health evaluation of free-ranging Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) in Peru.

As part of ongoing ecological studies of Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) at Punta San Juan, Ica Department, Peru, health surveys were conducted in November 1992, 1993, and 1994. In the three surveys, 98 birds in total were handled for examination, and blood was collected for laboratory analysis from 90 of these birds. All birds seemed to be in good condition. Body weights of females were significantly lower in 1994 than in the other years. Fleas (Parapsyllus humboldti) and ticks (Ornithodoros amblus) were found on the penguins and in their nests. Females had significantly higher plasma calcium and phosphorus levels, and they had lower weights than males. No other differences were found between the sexes. Hematology, plasma chemistries, and plasma mineral levels varied between years. Positive antibody titers for Chlamydophila psittaci (62%), avian adenovirus (7%; 1994 only), paramyxovirus-2 (7%; 1993 only), and Salmonella Pullorum (7%) were found. Plasma chemistry and mineral levels differed between individuals testing positive vs. negative on serologic tests for avian adenovirus and Salmonella Pullorum. Serologic tests for antibodies to avian influenza A virus, avian encephalomyelitis virus, infectious bronchitis virus, avian reovirus, duck viral enteritis virus, equine encephalitis (eastern, western, and Venezuelan) viruses, infectious bursal disease virus, infectious laryngotracheitis virus, Aspergillus sp., and paramyxovirus-1 and -3 were negative. All chlorinated pesticide and polychlorinated biphenyl analyses were below detectable limits.

Hematologic iron analyte values as an indicator of hepatic hemosiderosis in Callitrichidae.

Hepatic hemosiderosis is one of the most common postmortem findings in captive callitrichid species. Noninvasive evaluation of hematologic iron analytes has been used to diagnose hepatic iron storage disease in humans, lemurs, and bats. This study evaluated the relationship between hematologic iron analyte values (iron, ferritin, total iron binding capacity, and percent transferrin saturation) and hepatic hemosiderosis in callitrichids at the Wildlife Conservation Society's Central Park and Bronx Zoos. Results revealed that both ferritin and percent transferrin saturation levels had strong positive correlations with hepatic iron concentration (P<0.001, r=0.77, n=20; P<0.001, r=0.85, n=10, respectively). Serum iron levels positively correlated with hepatic iron concentration (P=0.06, r=0.56, n=11), but this finding was not significant. Serum total iron binding capacity did not significantly correlate with hepatic iron concentration (P=0.47, r=0.25, n=10). Both ferritin and hepatic iron concentration positively correlated with severity of hepatic iron deposition on histology (P<0.05, r=0.49, n=21; P<0.001, r=0.67, n=21, respectively). This study suggests that ferritin, serum iron concentration, and percent transferrin saturation are convenient, noninvasive, antemortem methods for assessing severity of hemosiderosis in callitrichids.

Cholelithiasis in four callitrichid species (Leontopithecus, Callithrix).

Medical records of three male and three female callitrichids of four species (Leontopithecus chrysopygus, Leontopithecus rosalia, Callithrix argentata argentata, Callithrix kuhlii) diagnosed with cholelithiasis were reviewed. Ages of affected animals at the time of diagnosis ranged from 2-14 yr. Definitive antemortem diagnosis of cholelithiasis was made in four of the six cases. Chronic weight loss, lethargy, and weakness were seen in all cases. Chronic intermittent diarrhea was seen in three cases. Icterus and abnormal gait were each present in two of the animals. Hematologic and serum biochemical abnormalities included leukocytosis in five cases, elevated bilirubin (direct and indirect) in four cases, and anemia in four cases. Radiographic evidence of choleliths was observed in three cases. Surgical removal of choleliths was successfully performed on two animals. Full necropsies were performed on all cases, and choleliths were believed to contribute to morbidity in all cases. However, inflammatory bowel disease was determined to be the primary cause of weight loss and mortality in at least three animals. All choleliths analyzed were pigment stones, two being primarily composed of cystine.

Anesthesia of male axis deer (Axis axis): evaluation of thiafentanil, medetomidine, and ketamine versus medetomidine and ketamine.

Thiafentanil oxalate, previously known as A-3080, is a synthetic opioid used for chemical immobilization of a variety of nondomestic hoofstock species. This study compared the combination of thiafentanil oxalate, medetomidine, and ketamine (TMK; 0.09 +/- 0.02 mg/kg, 0.01 +/- 0.003 mg/kg, and 1.36 +/- 0.33 mg/kg, respectively) with the combination of medetomidine and ketamine (MK; 0.09 +/- 0.02 mg/kg and 3.48 +/- 0.55 mg/kg, respectively) for anesthetization of 17 captive male axis deer (Axis axis) for vasectomy. Nine deer received TMK and eight deer received MK via projectile syringe during the months of January and February, 2005. Mean induction and arousal times, vital signs, and arterial blood gas values were monitored and compared. All animals received supplemental oxygen during the surgical procedure. Animals receiving TMK were reversed with naltrexone (100 mg/mg thiafentanil) and atipamazole (5 mg/mg medetomidine). Animals receiving MK were reversed with atipamazole (5 mg/mg medetomidine). Two MK animals and three TMK animals required supplementation with ketamine i.v. immediately upon handling. Six of the nine animals immobilized with TMK required intubation for positive-pressure ventilation. Two of these six animals also required isoflurane to maintain anesthesia. Mean induction time was 3.5 +/- 2.0 min in the TMK group, and 9.8 +/- 6.7 min in the MK group. Despite shorter mean induction times, animals anesthetized with TMK experienced unpredictable inductions, apnea, muscle rigidity, limb movement, and significant respiratory and metabolic lactic acidosis. MK resulted in smoother inductions, better respiratory function, and less adverse metabolic disturbances, and thus was considered superior to TMK for anesthesia in captive axis deer at the dosages tested.

Successful treatment of suspected exertional myopathy in a rhea (Rhea americana).

A 7-yr-old, adult, female greater rhea (Rhea americana) from the National Zoological Park presented with a 24-hr history of severe left leg lameness that progressed to an inability to stand. Blood work revealed creatine phosphokinase (CPK) above 50,000 U/L and elevated lactate dehydrogenase. The bird's condition deteriorated over the next week. The bird's CPK increased to over 208,400 U/L. Aggressive intravenous fluids and physical therapy along with oral anxiolytic and muscle-relaxant drugs were instituted. After 2 wk of aggressive therapy, initial signs of improvement were noted. By day 28, the bird was able to walk unassisted with no noticeable lameness. This is one of the few reported cases of successful treatment of suspected ratite exertional myopathy. It is believed that success in this case can be attributed to persistent, aggressive physical therapy, muscle relaxants, and anxiolytics aimed to counteract the hyperexcitable nature of these birds.