A review of the safety of MRI in cochlear implant patients with retained magnets.

The number of patients with cochlear implants (CIs) is increasing due to expanding indications, and improving CI services. Furthermore, as the use of imaging increases in clinical medicine, it is increasingly likely that patients with CIs will require a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examination during their lifetime. Therefore it is important that clinicians are aware of the safety aspects and manufacturer recommendations for CI patients with retained magnets. This article summarises guidelines from all major CI manufacturers and reviews the published literature on the safety of MRI in CI patients with magnets in situ. The most commonly reported complication of MRI in CI patients was pain. Other significant complications included magnet displacement, depolarisation, and polarity reversal. Artefacts caused by the CI remain an issue, but may be reduced by the use of specific sequences. Manufacturer recommendations should be followed to reduce the risk of complications, although complications may occur even when guidelines are followed. For this reason, the indication for imaging these patients should be reviewed, and patients should be appropriately counselled and consented.

Questionnaire survey on medical futility and termination of resuscitation in cardiac arrest patients among emergency physicians in Hong Kong.

INTRODUCTION: The perceptions of medical futility and decisions about termination of resuscitation (TOR) for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) are highly heterogeneous and dependent on the practice of the attending emergency physicians. The objective of this study was to report and investigate the knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding medical futility and TOR during management of OHCA in Hong Kong. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among emergency medicine physicians in Hong Kong. The questionnaire assessed participants' background, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours concerning medical futility and TOR in management of OHCA. Composite scores were calculated to reflect knowledge, attitudes, and practices of OHCA treatment. Subgroup analysis and multiple regression analysis were used to explore the relationship between participants' background, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours. RESULTS: The response rate to this survey was 57% (140/247). Independent predictors of less aggressive resuscitation in OHCA patients included status as a Fellow of the Hong Kong College of Emergency Medicine (ß= -0.314, P=0.028) and being an Advanced Cardiac Life Support instructor (ß= -0.217, P=0.032). There was no difference in aggressiveness of resuscitation in terms of years of clinical experience (ß=0.015, P=0.921), knowledge of TOR (ß=0.057, P=0.509), or attitudes about TOR (ß= -0.103, P=0.214). The correlation between knowledge and attitudes was low (Spearman's coefficient=0.02, P=0.795). CONCLUSION: Clinical practice and behaviour of TOR was not demonstrated to have associations with knowledge or attitude. Status as a Fellow of the Hong Kong College of Emergency Medicine or Advanced Cardiac Life Support instructor were the only two parameters identified that had significant relationships with earlier TOR in medically futile patients with OHCA.

Epigenetic therapies by targeting aberrant histone methylome in AML: molecular mechanisms, current preclinical and clinical development.

While the current epigenetic drug development is still largely restricted to target DNA methylome, emerging evidence indicates that histone methylome is indeed another major epigenetic determinant for gene expression and frequently deregulated in acute myeloid leukaemia (AML). The recent advances in dissecting the molecular regulation and targeting histone methylome in AML together with the success in developing lead compounds specific to key histone methylation-modifying enzymes have revealed new opportunities for effective leukaemia treatment. In this article, we will review the emerging functions of histone methyltransferases and histone demethylases in AML, especially MLL-rearranged leukaemia. We will also examine recent preclinical and clinical studies that show significant promises of targeting these histone methylation-modifying enzymes for AML treatment.

Epigenetics in acute promyelocytic leukaemia pathogenesis and treatment response: a TRAnsition to targeted therapies.

Transcriptional deregulation plays a key role in a large array of cancers, and successful targeting of oncogenic transcription factors that sustain diseases has been a holy grail in the field. Acute promyelocytic leukaemia (APL) driven by chimeric transcription factors encoding retinoic acid receptor alpha fusions is the paradigm of targeted cancer therapy, in which the application of all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) treatments have markedly transformed this highly fatal cancer to a highly manageable disease. The extremely high complete remission rate resulted from targeted therapies using ATRA in combination with arsenic trioxide will likely be able to minimise or even totally eliminate the use of highly toxic chemotherapeutic agents in APL. In this article, we will review the molecular basis and the upcoming challenges of these targeted therapies in APL, and discuss the recent advance in our understanding of epigenetics underlying ATRA response and their potential use to further improve treatment response and overcome resistance.

Critical role of retinoid/rexinoid signaling in mediating transformation and therapeutic response of NUP98-RARG leukemia.

While the nucleoporin 98-retinoic acid receptor gamma (NUP98-RARG) is the first RARG fusion protein found in acute leukemia, its roles and the molecular basis in oncogenic transformation are currently unknown. Here, we showed that homodimeric NUP98-RARG not only acquired unique nuclear localization pattern and ability of recruiting both RXRA and wild-type NUP98, but also exhibited similar transcriptional properties as RARA fusions found in acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL). Using murine bone marrow retroviral transduction/transformation assay, we further demonstrated that NUP98-RARG fusion protein had gained transformation ability of primary hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells, which was critically dependent on the C-terminal GLFG domain of NUP98 and the DNA binding domain (DBD) of RARG. In contrast to other NUP98 fusions, cells transformed by the NUP98-RARG fusion were extremely sensitive to all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) treatment. Interestingly, while pan-RXR agonists, SR11237 and LGD1069 could specifically inhibit NUP98-RARG transformed cells, mutation of the RXR interaction domain in NUP98-RARG had little effect on its transformation, revealing that therapeutic functions of rexinoid can be independent of the direct biochemical interaction between RXR and the fusion. Together, these results indicate that deregulation of the retinoid/rexinoid signaling pathway has a major role and may represent a potential therapeutic target for NUP98-RARG-mediated transformation.

The Mll-Een knockin fusion gene enhances proliferation of myeloid progenitors derived from mouse embryonic stem cells and causes myeloid leukaemia in chimeric mice.

Rearrangement of the mixed lineage leukaemia (MLL) gene with extra eleven nineteen (EEN) was previously identified in an infant with acute myeloid leukaemia. Using homologous recombination, we have created a mouse equivalent of the human MLL-EEN allele and showed that when Mll(Een/+) embryonic stem (ES) cells were induced to differentiate in vitro into haemopoietic cells, there was increased proliferation of myeloid progenitors with self-renewal property. We also generated Mll(Een/+) chimeric mice, which developed leukaemia displaying enlarged livers, spleens, thymuses and lymph nodes owing to infiltration of Mll(Een/+)-expressing leukemic cells. Immunophenotyping of cells from enlarged organs and bone marrow (BM) of the Mll(Een/+) chimeras revealed an accumulation of Mac-1+/Gr-1- immature myeloid cells and a reduction in normal B- and T-cell populations. We observed differential regulation of Hox genes between myeloid cells derived from Mll(Een/+) ES cells and mouse BM leukemic cells which suggested different waves of Hox expression may be activated by MLL fusion proteins for initiation (in ES cells) and maintenance (in leukemic cells) of the disease. We believe studies of MLL fusion proteins in ES cells combined with in vivo animal models offer new approaches to the dissection of molecular events in multistep pathogenesis of leukaemia.

Expression and protein-binding studies of the EEN gene family, new interacting partners for dynamin, synaptojanin and huntingtin proteins.

EEN, identified initially as a fusion partner to the mixed-lineage leukaemia gene in human leukaemia, and its related members, EEN-B1 and EEN-B2, have recently been shown to interact with two endocytic molecules, dynamin and synaptojanin, as well as with the huntingtin protein. In the present study, we show that the expression of the EEN gene-family members is differentially regulated. Multiple-spliced variants were identified for EEN-B2. In the brain, EEN-B1 and EEN-B2 mRNA are preferentially expressed in the cerebellar Purkinje and granule cells, dentate gyrus cells, hippocampal pyramidal neurons and cerebral granule cells. The expression patterns of EEN-B1 and EEN-B2 mRNA in the brain overlap with those of dynamin-I/III, synaptojanin-I and huntingtin, whereas the ubiquitous expression of EEN is consistent with that of dynamin-II. In testes, members of the EEN family are co-expressed with testis-type dynamin and huntingtin in Sertoli cells and germ cells respectively. Our results on the overlapping expression patterns are consistent with the proposed interaction of EEN family members with dynamin, synaptojanin and huntingtin protein in vivo. Although all three EEN family members bind to dynamin and synaptojanin, EEN-B1 has the highest affinity for binding, followed by EEN and EEN-B2. We also demonstrate that amphiphysin, a major synaptojanin-binding protein in brain, can compete with the EEN family for binding to synaptojanin and dynamin. We propose that recruitment of the EEN family by dynamin/synaptojanin to clathrin-coated pits can be regulated by amphiphysin.

The interaction between EEN and Abi-1, two MLL fusion partners, and synaptojanin and dynamin: implications for leukaemogenesis.

The mixed lineage leukaemia gene, MLL (also called HRX, ALL-1) in acute leukaemia is fused to at least 16 identified partner genes that display diverse structural and biochemical properties. Using GST pull down and the yeast two hybrid system, we show that two different MLL fusion partners with SH3 domains, EEN and Abi-1, interact with dynamin and synaptojanin, both of which are involved in endocytosis. Synaptojanin, a member of the inositol phosphatase family that has recently been shown to regulate cell proliferation and survival, is also known to bind to Eps15, the mouse homologue of AF1p, another fusion partner of MLL. Expression studies show that synaptojanin is strongly expressed in bone marrow and immature leukaemic cell lines, very weakly in peripheral blood leukocytes and absent in Raji, a mature B cell line. We found that the SH3 domains of EEN and Abi-1 interact with different proline-rich domains of synaptojanin while the EH domains of Eps15 interact with the NPF motifs of synaptojanin. In vitro competitive binding assays demonstrate that EEN displays stronger binding affinity than Abi-1 and may compete with it for synaptojanin. These findings suggest a potential link between MLL fusion-mediated leukaemogenesis and the inositol-signalling pathway.

Analysis of MLL-derived transcripts in infant acute monocytic leukemia with a complex translocation (1;11;4)(q21;q23;p16).

It has been proposed, on the basis of cytogenetic studies and molecular analysis of MLL-derived transcripts in acute leukemia with 11q23 rearrangement, that only one fusion gene transcript present on the der(11) chromosome is critical for leukemogenesis. This view is challenged by a recent observation in a case of leukemia with a complex translocation that results in MLL being fused in-frame to two different partner genes. We investigated a case of infant monocytic leukemia with a complex translocation, (1;11;4)(q21;q23;p16). Molecular studies revealed MLL rearrangement by both fluorescence in situ hybridization and Southern blot analysis, and MLL/AF1q, but not the reciprocal message (i.e., AF1q/MLL), was amplified by polymerase chain reaction. Sequence analysis of MLL/AF1q revealed an in-frame fusion between MLL exon 6 and the breakpoint located six bases upstream of the ATG start site for AF1q. Our data suggest that only one form of MLL fusion gene is implicated in leukemogenesis in our case to t(1;11;4).

The impact of differential binding of wild-type RARalpha, PML-, PLZF- and NPM-RARalpha fusion proteins towards transcriptional co-activator, RIP-140, on retinoic acid responses in acute promyelocytic leukemia.

Retinoic acid receptor (RA) heterodimer (RAR/RXR) activities have been shown to be repressed by transcriptional co-repressor, SMRT/N-CoR, in the absence of the ligand while upon all-trans retionic acid (ATRA) treatment, SMRT/N-CoR is dissociated from RARalpha leading to gene expression by the recruitment of transcriptional co-activators to the transcriptional complex. The difference in response to ATRA therapy between acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) patients with PML-RARalpha fusion and PLZF-RARalpha fusion has recently been found to be partially due to the strong association of the transcriptional co-repressor, SMRT/N-CoR, with PLZF domain. We demonstrate that SMRT association, as with PML-RARalpha, can be released from NPM-RARalpha at pharmacological concentration of ATRA (10-6 M). Moreover, we show for the first time that the interaction between the transcriptional co-activator, RIP-140, and PML-, PLZF- or NPM-RARalpha fusion proteins can be positively stimulated by ATRA although they are less sensitive as compared with the wild-type RARalpha. Our results suggest that the dissociation of transcriptional co-repressors, SMRT/N-CoR, and recruitment of co-activators, eg RIP-140, to APL-associated fusion proteins constitute a common molecular mechanism in APL and underlie the responsiveness of the disease to RA therapy. Leukemia (2000) 14, 77-83.

Exon scrambling of MLL transcripts occur commonly and mimic partial genomic duplication of the gene.

The MLL gene is frequently rearranged in acute human leukemia of both the myeloid and lymphoid lineages. Using a sensitive reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay, we identified several abnormally spliced transcripts in which MLL exons were joined in an order different from the genomic orientation (scrambled exons). Mis-splicing of MLL was present in both normal and malignant tissues. Although the majority of these scrambled transcripts were joined accurately at consensus splice sites, there were several examples in which the junctions of exons spliced in aberrant order were at non-consensus sites. A number of features differentiate mis-splicing of MLL from the previously described cases of scrambled exons and circular RNAs. Some scrambled transcripts appear to be present in the polyadenylated fraction of RNA. No correlation of exon scrambling with exon skipping was found, and there was no particular tendency for the exons involved to be near large introns. Our data show that splicing of MLL is extremely complex. The presence of scrambled transcripts in both normal and leukemic cells, indistinguishable from transcripts resulting from genomic MLL rearrangements, precludes the use of nested RT-PCR as a screening method for detection of tandem duplication of tandem duplication of MLL.

EEN encodes for a member of a new family of proteins containing an Src homology 3 domain and is the third gene located on chromosome 19p13 that fuses to MLL in human leukemia.

The MLL gene, the closest human homologue to the Drosophila trithorax gene, undergoes chromosomal translocation with a large number of different partner genes in both acute lymphoid and acute myeloid leukemias. We have identified a new partner gene, EEN, fused to MLL in a case of acute myeloid leukemia. The gene is located on chromosome 19p13, where two other MLL partner genes, ENL and ELL/MEN have also been identified. The deduced protein of 368 aa contains a central alpha-helical region and a C-terminal Src homology 3 (SH3) domain most similar to the C-terminal SH3 domain found in the Grb2/Sem-5/Drk family of genes. Sequence analysis of the fusion MLL/EEN transcript in our patient reveals that exon 6 of MLL is fused to the N-terminal end of EEN, a fusion that would create a chimeric protein that includes the major functional domain of EEN. EEN is expressed in a variety of tissue types and encodes a protein of approximately 46 kDa. The EEN protein is the human homologue of a member of a recently described murine SH3 domain-containing protein family. It is also highly related to a putative gene identified in Caenorhabditis elegans, and a number of similar sequences are present in the EST databases of several species.

MLL self fusion mediated by Alu repeat homologous recombination and prognosis of AML-M4/M5 subtypes.

Fifty-six patients with de novo acute myeloid leukemia M4/M5 subtypes were studied for rearrangements of the mixed lineage leukemia gene, MLL (also called HRX, Htrx-1, or ALL-1). Ten patients (18%) showed rearrangements of the MLL gene, 9 in a major breakpoint cluster region within a centromeric 8.3-kb BamHI fragment, whereas rearrangement in one patient was the result of a direct tandem duplication of exons 2-6 of MLL. Analysis of sequences at the duplication junction revealed that the points of MLL fusion within introns 6 and 1 both lie within Alu elements. This suggests the involvement of Alu repeat mediated homologous recombination in MLL self fusion. For the 10 rearranged samples, cytogenetics analysis revealed a normal karyotype in 3, and 3 had abnormalities other than 11q23. Survival analysis of patients revealed no difference between those with rearrangement of MLL and those showing the germ-line configuration.