Application of pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis to evaluate the adequacy of antimicrobial therapy for pediatric acute otitis media in Spain before and after the introduction of the PCV7 vaccine.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate, by applying pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) analysis, if the change in antibiotic susceptibility after the introduction of the 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) in Spain had any influence on the usefulness of the antimicrobials more frequently used as empirical treatment of pediatric acute otitis media (AOM). METHODS: PK parameters and susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae were obtained from bibliography. Monte Carlo simulation was used to estimate the cumulative fraction of response (CFR), understood as the expected probability of therapy success. For amoxicillin and amoxicillin/clavulanate, the target was free antibiotic concentration remaining above the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for ≥50% of the dosing interval (fT>MIC≥50%), whereas for cefuroxime axetil and cefotaxime, the target was fT>MIC≥60%. CFR values ≥90% were considered successful. RESULTS: When all serotypes of S. pneumoniae are considered, amoxicillin and cefotaxime turned out to reach a high probability of success, and difference before and after vaccination was scarce. For H. influenzae, CFR values were higher with amoxicillin/clavulanate than with amoxicillin. For both microorganisms, cefuroxime axetil resulted in low probability of success in the two periods of study. CONCLUSIONS: We have shown that the introduction of the PCV7 vaccination did not lead to changes in the probability of success of the current empiric treatments of the AOM. Integrated PK/PD analysis has demonstrated to be a useful tool to identify changes in antimicrobial activity after the implantation of a vaccination program, providing complementary information to the simple assessment of MIC values.

Hiccups in Parkinson's disease: an analysis of cases reported in the European pharmacovigilance database and a review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: Some reports have suggested an association between dopamine agonists and hiccups, involuntary contractions that merit full clinical attention because they can be very debilitating. Many drugs frequently used to treat hiccups are formally contraindicated in Parkinson's disease due to their liability to worsen motor symptoms, making the treatment of hiccups problematic in this disease. The objective of the present study was to analyze all spontaneous reports of hiccups from the European Pharmacovigilance Database in patients with Parkinson's disease and/or on dopaminergic drugs. Finally, we sought to identify evidence-based recommendations on the management of hiccups in Parkinson's disease. METHODS: We searched for all reports of hiccups in the European Pharmacovigilance Database (EudraVigilance) and calculated proportional reporting ratios for dopamine agonists and hiccups. We reviewed the literature on Parkinson's disease, dopamine agonists, and hiccups, searching for specific treatment recommendations for hiccups in this disease. RESULTS: Both rotigotine and pramipexole fulfilled the criteria to generate a safety signal. We found 32 and 13 cases of hiccups associated with dopamine agonists in EudraVigilance and the literature, respectively. There were no specific recommendations for the management of hiccups in Parkinson's disease in the clinical guidelines consulted. CONCLUSIONS: We have found evidence that rotigotine and pramipexole are associated with the appearance of hiccups and that this adverse reaction occurs predominantly in males. Given the scarce information available, specific recommendations are needed in clinical guidelines for the adequate management of hiccups in Parkinson's disease.

Structural recovery of the retina in a retinoschisin-deficient mouse after gene replacement therapy by solid lipid nanoparticles.

X-linked juvenile retinoschisis (XLRS) is a retinal degenerative disorder caused by mutations in the RS1 gene encoding a protein termed retinoschisin. The disease is an excellent candidate for gene replacement therapy as the majority of mutations have been shown to lead to a complete deficiency of the secreted protein in the retinal structures. In this work, we have studied the ability of non-viral vectors based on solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) to induce the expression of retinoschisin in photoreceptors (PR) after intravitreal administration to Rs1h-deficient mice. We designed two vectors prepared with SLN, protamine, and dextran (DX) or hyaluronic acid (HA), bearing a plasmid containing the human RS1 gene under the control of the murin opsin promoter (mOPS). In vitro, the nanocarriers were able to induce the expression of retinoschisin in a PR cell line. After injection into the murine vitreous, the formulation prepared with HA induced a higher transfection level in PR than the formulation prepared with DX. Moreover, the level of retinoschisin in the inner nuclear layer (INL), where bipolar cells are located, was also higher. Two weeks after vitreal administration into Rs1h-deficient mice, both formulations showed significant improvement of the retinal structure by inducing a decrease of cavities and PR loss, and an increase of retinal and outer nuclear layer (ONL) thickness. HA-SLN resulted in a significant higher increase in the thickness of both retina and ONL, which can be explained by the higher transfection level of PR. In conclusion, we have shown the structural improvement of the retina of Rs1h-deficient mice with PR specific expression of the RS1 gene driven by the specific promoter mOPS, after successful delivery via SLN-based non-viral vectors.

Solid lipid nanoparticle-based vectors intended for the treatment of X-linked juvenile retinoschisis by gene therapy: In vivo approaches in Rs1h-deficient mouse model.

X-linked juvenile retinoschisis (XLRS), which results from mutations in the gene RS1 that encodes the protein retinoschisin, is a retinal degenerative disease affecting between 1/5000 and 1/25,000 people worldwide. Currently, there is no cure for this disease and the treatment is based on the application of low-vision aids. The aim of the present work was the in vitro and in vivo evaluation of two different non-viral vectors based on solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), protamine and two anionic polysaccharides, hyaluronic acid (HA) or dextran (DX), for the treatment of XLRS. First, the vectors containing a plasmid which encodes both the reporter green fluorescent protein (GFP) and the therapeutic protein retinoschisin, under the control of CMV promoters, were characterized in vitro. Then, the vectors were subretinally or intravitreally administrated to C57BL/6 wild type mice. One week later, GFP was detected in all treated mice and in all retinal layers except in the Outer Nuclear Layer (ONL) and the Inner Nuclear Layer (INL), regardless of the administration route and the vector employed. Finally, two weeks after subretinal or intravitreal injection to Rs1h-deficient mice, GFP and retinoschisin expression was detected in all retinal layers, except in the ONL, which was maintained for at least two months after subretinal administration. The structural analysis of the treated Rs1h-deficient eyes showed a partial recovery of the retina related to the production of retinoschisin. This work shows for the first time a successful RS1 gene transfer to Rs1h-deficient animals using non-viral nanocarriers, with promising results that point to non-viral gene therapy as a feasible future therapeutic tool for retinal disorders.

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles as Non-Viral Vectors for Gene Transfection in a Cell Model of Fabry Disease.

Here, we demonstrate the ability of solid lipid nanoparticle-based non-viral vectors to increase the α-galactosidase A levels of the IMFE1 cell line, an in vitro model for target cells in Fabry disease. For this purpose, vectors containing the pR-M10-αGal A plasmid, which encodes the α-galactosidase A enzyme, were prepared; the in vitro transfection efficacy was studied in IMFE1 cells, and the results were confirmed by RT-PCR. The cellular uptake of the vectors, intracellular disposition of the plasmid, and probable endocytosis pathways of the nanoparticles were also analyzed. The vectors used for the studies carried protamine (P-DNA-SLN), dextran and protamine (D-P-DNA-SLN), or hyaluronic acid of two different molecular weights and protamine (HA150-P-DNA-SLN or HA500-P-DNA-SLN). The new formulations, which presented a particle size in the range of nanometers (from 218 nm to 348 nm) and a positive superficial charge, were able to increase α-galactosidase A activity up to 4-fold in comparison to non treated IMFE1 cells. The most efficient vectors were those that included HA, and no differences due to changes in the molecular weight of HA were detected. The observed lack of colocalization with each of the four different Nile Red-labeled vectors and transferrin or cholera toxin appears to indicate that clathrin- and caveolae-independent pathways may be involved in their cellular uptake. Additionally, colocalization with LysoTracker indicated that the formulations were exposed to lysosomal activity, which may be responsible for the release of the plasmid from the vector. In conclusion, we reveal the potential of SLN-based vectors to efficiently transfect an immortalized Fabry patient cell line.

Biodistribution of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) after intravenous administration to rats: influence of technological factors.

Nanoparticles for medical applications are frequently administered via parenteral administration. In this study, the tissue distribution of three lipid formulations based on Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs) after intravenous administration to rats was evaluated. NLCs were prepared by a high pressure homogenization method and varied in terms of particle size, surface charge, and surfactant content. The (99m)Tc radiolabeled NLCs were intravenously administered to rats, and radioactivity levels in blood and tissues were measured. Cmax, AUC0-24, and MRT0-24 were obtained from the radioactivity level versus time profiles. The radiolabeled nanocarriers exhibited a long circulation time since radioactivity was detected in blood even 24 h post-injection. No differences on the MRT values in blood among the NLCs were observed, in spite of the different particle size and surface charge. The highest radioactivity levels were measured in the kidney, followed by the bone marrow, the liver, and the spleen. In the kidney, there was a higher accumulation of the positive nanoparticles, and in the liver, uptake of negative nanoparticles was higher than positive ones. NLCs with the largest particle size showed a higher uptake in the lung and lower accumulation in liver and bone marrow, in comparison with the smaller ones.

Novel extended-release formulation of lovastatin by one-step melt granulation: in vitro and in vivo evaluation.

The objective of this study was to apply a one-step melt granulation method to develop an extended-release formulation of lovastatin (LOV-ER). We prepared a formulation using PEG 6000 as binder agent in a laboratory scale high-shear mixer. In vitro dissolution studies showed that the release of the drug from the new formulation followed a zero-order kinetic with no differences in the release profile with either the pH media or the agitation rate. The pharmacokinetic of lovastatin and its metabolite lovastatin acid was evaluated after the administration of the new formulation to Beagle dogs in fasted conditions and after a high-fat meal, and compared to the marketed formulation Altoprev®. After the administration of LOV-ER, extended plasma profiles of lovastatin and its active metabolite were achieved in both fasted conditions and after the high-fat meal. Plasma levels of lovastatin and lovastatin acid were always higher when the LOV-ER formulation was administered with the high-fat meal. A high variability in plasma levels and pharmacokinetic parameters was obtained, being this variability higher when the formulation was administered under fasting conditions. Our results suggest that there is an increase in lovastatin bioavailability when the formulation is administered after the high-fat meal. When we compare LOV-ER and Altoprev®, both administered after the high-fat meal, we found significant differences (p<0.05) in C(max) of lovastatin and in AUC(0-∞) and MRT of lovastatin acid. No differences were detected between both formulations in fasting conditions. In this regard, the high-fat meal seems to increase the absorption extent of lovastatin from LOV-ER formulation and to delay the absorption rate of the drug from Altoprev®. In conclusion, we developed a lovastatin formulation that provided extended plasma levels that confirm that one-step melt granulation in high-shear mixer could be an easy and cost-effective technique for extended-release formulation development.

A proline-rich peptide improves cell transfection of solid lipid nanoparticle-based non-viral vectors.

The aim of this work was to improve the transfection efficacy of solid lipid nanoparticle (SLN)-based non-viral vectors into ARPE-19 cells through the addition of Sweet Arrow Peptide (SAP). First, we prepared SAP-DNA complexes at ratios of at least 50:1, and then incorporated them into the SLNs. All formulations were able to protect DNA, and the peptide favoured the most bioactive form (supercoiled) of open circular DNA turns. In vitro transfection studies of the vectors containing the pCMS-EGFP plasmid in HEK293 and ARPE-19 cell lines revealed that incorporation of SAP led to greater transfection in both cell lines, although via different mechanisms. The presence of SAP in the formulations did not affect the viability of HEK293 or ARPE-19 cells. In HEK293 cells, SAP enabled greater uptake of the vectors, and an SAP to DNA ratio of 50:1 was sufficient for enhancing transfection. In contrast, in ARPE-19 cells, SAP induced a change in the dominant entrance mechanism, from clathrin endocytosis to caveolae/raft-dependent endocytosis, thereby decreasing use of the lysosomal pathway and consequently, reducing vector degradation. The extent to which SAP uses one mechanism or the other largely depends on its concentration in the formulation.

Short- and long-term stability study of lyophilized solid lipid nanoparticles for gene therapy.

Most studies in gene therapy are focused on developing more efficient non-viral vectors, ignoring their stability, even though physically and chemically stable vectors are necessary to achieve large easily shipped and stored batches. In the present work, the effect of lyophilization on the morphological characteristics and transfection capacity of solid lipid nanoparticles (LyoSLN) and SLN-DNA vectors (Lyo(SLN-DNA)) has been evaluated. The lyophilized preparations were stored under three different sets of temperature and humidity ICH conditions: 25 degrees C/60%RH, 30 degrees C/65%RH and 40 degrees C/75%RH. After lyophilization we found an increase in particle size which did not imply a reduction of "in vitro" transfection capacity. Stability studies of formulations lyophilized with trehalose showed that SLNs were physically stable during 9 months at 25 degrees C/60%RH and 6 months at 30 degrees C/65%RH. This stability was lost when harder conditions were employed (40 degrees C/75%RH). LyoSLNs maintained or increased the transfection efficacy (from 19% to approximately 40% EGFP positive cells) over time only at 25 degrees C/60%RH and 30 degrees C/65%RH. Lyo(SLN-DNA) resulted in almost no transfection under all conditions. LyoSLNs showed less DNA condensation capacity, whereas in Lyo(SLN-DNA) the plasmid became strongly bound, hampering the transfection. Furthermore, the storage of lyophilized lipoplexes stabilized with the disaccharide trehalose did not affect cell viability.

Solid lipid nanoparticles for retinal gene therapy: transfection and intracellular trafficking in RPE cells.

Retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells are usually employed to study DNA systems for diseases related to problems in the retina. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) have been shown to be useful non-viral vectors for gene therapy. The objective of this work was to evaluate the transfection capacity of SLNs in the human retinal pigment epithelial established cell line (ARPE-19) in order to elucidate the potential application of this vector in the treatment of retinal diseases. Results showed a lower transfection level of SLNs in ARPE-19 cells than in HEK293 (2.5% vs. 14.9% EGFP positive cells at 72h post-transfection). Trafficking studies revealed a delay in cell uptake of the vectors in ARPE-19 cells. Differences in internalization process into the two cell lines studied explain, in part, the difference in the gene expression. The clathrin-mediated endocytosis in ARPE-19 cells directs the solid lipid nanoparticles to lysosomes; moreover, the low division rate of this cell line hampers the entrance of DNA into the nucleus. The knowledge of intracellular trafficking is very useful in order to design more efficient vectors taking into account the characteristics of the specific cell line to be transfected.

Solid lipid nanoparticles: formulation factors affecting cell transfection capacity.

Since solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) were introduced as non-viral transfection systems, very few reports of their use for gene delivery have been published. In this work different formulations based on SLN-DNA complexes were formulated in order to evaluate the influence of the formulation components on the "in vitro" transfection capacity. SLNs composed by the solid lipid Precirol ATO 5, the cationic lipid DOTAP and the surfactant Tween 80, and SLN-DNA complexes prepared at different DOTAP/DNA ratios were characterized by studying their size, surface charge, DNA protection capacity, transfection and cell viability in HEK293 cultured cells. The incorporation of Tween 80 allowed for the reduction of the cationic lipid concentration. The formulations prepared at DOTAP/DNA ratios 7/1, 5/1 and 4/1 provided almost the same transfection levels (around 15% transfected cells), without significant differences between them (p>0.05). Other assayed formulations presented lower transfection. Transfection activity was dependent on the DOTAP/DNA ratio since it influences the DNA condensation into the SLNs. DNA condensation is a crucial factor which conditions the transfection capacity of SLNs, because it influences DNA delivery from nanoparticles, gene protection from external agents and DNA topology.

Determination of ceftazidime and cefepime in plasma and dialysate-ultrafiltrate from patients undergoing continuous veno-venous hemodiafiltration by HPLC.

We have developed and validated a new, rapid and reproducible HPLC method for the determination of cefepime and ceftazidime in plasma and dialysate-ultrafiltrate samples obtained from intensive care unit (ICU) patients undergoing continuous veno-venous hemodiafiltration (CVVHDF). The method for plasma samples involved protein precipitation with acetonitrile, followed by washing with dichloromethane to remove apolar lipophilic compounds. Dialysate-ultrafiltrate samples did not require any preparation. Separation was performed on a muBondapak C18 (30 cm x 3.9 mm x 10 microm) with UV detection. The mobile phase contained acetate buffer: ACN and was delivered at 2 ml/min. The coefficients of determination of the calibration curves were always > or = 0.998 and R.S.D.% of the response factors <10%. The intra and inter-assay precision and accuracy of the quality controls (QC) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were satisfactory in all cases. Plasma and dialysate-ultrafiltrate samples were stable at -20 and -80 degrees C for 2 months and also after three freeze/thaw cycles. Dialysate-ultrafiltrate samples were stable in the chromatographic rack for 24h at room temperature, but we recommend storing processed plasma samples at 4 degrees C until the analysis. The described method has proved to be useful to give accurate measurements of ceftazidime and cefepime in samples obtained from patients undergoing CVVHDF.

Quantitation and stability of piperacillin and tazobactam in plasma and ultrafiltrate from patients undergoing continuous venovenous hemofiltration by HPLC.

Simple and reproducible HPLC methods for the determination of piperacillin and tazobactam have been developed and a complete stability study carried out. The method for piperacillin plasma samples consisted of protein precipitation with methanol using penicillin G as internal standard. No sample preparation was needed for ultrafiltrate samples. Tazobactam sample preparation involved protein precipitation with acetonitrile and the removal of lipids with dichloromethane. Piperacillin separation was performed on a microBondapack C(18) column (300 x 3.9, 10 microm) and tazobactam on a Novapack C(18) column (150 x 3.9, 4 microm) with UV detection set at 229 and 225 nm, respectively. The mobile phase consisted of phosphate buffer-acetonitrile, delivered at 1.5 mL[sol ]min. Calibration curves determination coefficients were >or=0.999 and response factors CV% < 5%. Intra- and inter-assay precision and accuracy of the quality control and limit of quantification were satisfactory. Plasma and ultrafiltrate samples were stable at -20 and -80 degrees C for 2 months and after three freeze-thaw cycles. In the chromatographic rack, tazobactam ultrafiltrate samples were stable for 24 h and plasma samples for 12 h, piperacillin ultrafiltrate samples for 8 h, but plasma samples for only 4 h. Storage of piperacillin samples at 4 degrees C until analysis is recommended. Piperacillin was stable in the presence of tazobactam.

Bioequivalence of two oral ciprofloxacin tablets formulations.

The relative bioavailability of a new 750 mg tablet formulation of ciprofloxacin (test formulation supplied by Dr. August Wolff GmbH and Co., Germany) was compared with that of Ciprobay tablets 750 mg (reference formulation from Bayer Vital GmbH and Co., Germany). Twenty-four healthy volunteers (12 male and 12 female) were included in this single-dose, 2-sequence, crossover randomized study. Blood samples were obtained prior to dosing and at 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 18, 24 and 30 hours after drug administration. Plasma concentrations of ciprofloxacin were determined by HPLC. No differences were found when the in vitro dissolution profiles of both formulations were compared. The pharmacokinetic parameters AUC(0-t), AUC(0-infinity), Cmax and Cmax/AUC(0-infinity) were tested for bioequivalence after log-transformation of data, and ratios of tmax were evaluated nonparametrically. The parametric analysis revealed the following mean values for the test/reference ratios (90% standard confidence intervals in parenthesis (ln-transformed data): 1.01 (0.95-1.07) for AUC(0-t), 0.99 (0.93-1.05) for AUC(0-infinity), 1.05 (0.97-1.14) for Cmax and 1.06 (0.97-1.15) for Cmax/AUC(0-infinity). The nonparametric confidence interval for tmax was 0.77-1.15. All parameters showed bioequivalence between both formulations as their confidence intervals were within the bioequivalence acceptable range of 0.80-1.25 limits; the 90% confidence interval for tmax slightly exceeded limits of bioequivalence. We conclude that both formulations show bioequivalence for both the rate and the extent of absorption.

Comparative bioavailability of two immediate-release tablets of lisinopril/hydrochlorothiazide in healthy volunteers.

AIM: Two formulations of lisinopril/hydrochlorothiazide (20 mg/12.5 mg) were evaluated for bioequivalence after single dosing in healthy volunteers. METHODS: The study was conducted according to an open, randomized, 2-period crossover design with a 2-week washout interval between doses. Twenty-four volunteers participated and all completed the study successfully. Lisinopril and hydrochlorothiazide were determined in plasma by HPLC. The pharmacokinetic parameters AUC(0-t), AUC(0-infinity), Cmax and Cmax/AUC(0-infinity) were tested for bioequivalence after logarithmic transformation of data and ratios of tmax were evaluated non-parametrically. RESULTS: For lisinopril, the parametric analysis revealed the following test/reference ratios and their confidence intervals (90% CI): 1.01 (0.84-1.22) for AUC(0-t), 0.98 (0.81-1.19) for AUC(0-infinity), 1.02 (0.83-1.25) for Cmax and 1.03 (0.99-1.08) for Cmax/AUC(0-infinity). The 90% CI for tmax was 0.94-1.07. All parameters showed bioequivalence between both formulations. As for hydrochlorothiazide, test/reference ratios and their confidence intervals (90% CI) were: 1.05 (0.95-1.17), 1.02 (0.93-1.12) for AUC(0-infinity), 0.99 (0.89-1.07) for Cmax and 0.97 (0.90-1.04) for Cmax/AUC(0-infinity). The 90% CI for tmax was 1.00-1.41. All parameters showed bioequivalence between both formulations except for tmax. A discrete fall in both systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure was observed after drug administration. The time course of both parameters was similar for the 2 formulations. Heart rates also followed a similar time profile. CONCLUSIONS: The bioequivalence of the 2 formulations of lisinopril/hydrochlorothiazide was demonstrated.

Release of ketoprofen enantiomers from HPMC K100M matrices--diffusion studies.

Sustained release formulations of ketoprofen elaborated with HPMC K100M were studied to test the hypothesis that chiral excipients can stereoselectively affect the release of the racemic drug. The differences observed in the percentage released between enantiomers show the existence of a chiral interaction between ketoprofen and HPMC K100M. HPMC interacts preferably with the S-enantiomer, although the enantioselectivity observed was not relevant from biopharmaceutical and clinical points of view. Diffusion studies were carried out in membrane diffusion cells to simplify the excipient-drug system and hence to analyze only the influence of diffusion process on the stereoselectivity. The results obtained show that the absence of the erosion process strengthens the enantiomeric differences observed in the drug release from tablets. Another objective of this work was to study the influence of formulation pH on the 'in vitro' release profile of ketoprofen. The amount and the release mechanism of ketoprofen from formulations elaborated are conditioned mainly by the pH of the matrix.

Influence of hepatic regeneration after partial hepatectomy on theophylline pharmacokinetics in rats.

The influence of hepatic regeneration after partial hepatectomy on theophylline pharmacokinetics has been studied on the rat. At different times after partial hepatectomy, theophylline was administered intravenously as a single dose of 6 mg/Kg. Drug plasma levels were determined by HPLC and pharmacokinetic parameters were obtained. Physiological parameters were also measured. Following hepatectomy, an increase in mass liver was observed and 15 days after surgery, liver mass was 78% of nonhepatectomized rats. Initial theophylline concentrations varied during the regeneration period, as well as the distribution volume at steady-estate (Vss). Elimination half-life (t 1/2), notably increased after hepatectomy (7.27+/-1.38 h), decreased with time (6.70+/-1.18 h, 6.47+/-0.69 and 5.17+/-0.87 h after 24 h, 3 days and 15 days post-hepatectomy, respectively) to reach a value close to that of the control group (4.30+/-1.37 h). The increase in elimination half-life led to a decrease in the mean residence time during the period of liver regeneration. However, the intrinsic clearance hardly varied during regeneration period. We could establish the following relationship between liver weight (LW) and the elimination half-life: t 1/2 (h)=-0.358*LW (g)+8.6168 (R2=0.9906). For the mean residence time (MRT) this relationship was: MRT (h) =-0.5173*LW (g)+12.433 (R2=0.991).