A progesterone derivative linked to a stable phospholipid activates breast cancer cell response without leaving the cell membrane.

In hormone-responsive breast cancer cells, progesterone (P4) has been shown to act via its nuclear receptor (nPR), a ligand-activated transcription factor. A small fraction of progesterone receptor is palmitoylated and anchored to the cell membrane (mbPR) forming a complex with estrogen receptor alpha (ERα). Upon hormone exposure, either directly or via interaction with ERα, mbPR activates the SRC/RAS/ERK kinase pathway leading to phosphorylation of nPR by ERK. Kinase activation is essential for P4 gene regulation, as the ERK and MSK1 kinases are recruited by the nPR to its genomic binding sites and trigger chromatin remodeling. An interesting open question is whether activation of mbPR can result in gene regulation in the absence of ligand binding to intracellular progesterone receptor (iPR). This matter has been investigated in the past using P4 attached to serum albumin, but the attachment is leaky and albumin can be endocytosed and degraded, liberating P4. Here, we propose a more stringent approach to address this issue by ensuring attachment of P4 to the cell membrane via covalent binding to a stable phospholipid. This strategy identifies the actions of P4 independent from hormone binding to iPR. We found that a membrane-attached progestin can activate mbPR, the ERK signaling pathway leading to iPR phosphorylation, initial gene regulation and entry into the cell cycle, in the absence of detectable intracellular progestin.

Effects of a N-Maleimide-derivatized Phosphatidylethanolamine on the Architecture and Properties of Lipid Bilayers.

N-maleimide-derivatized phospholipids are often used to facilitate protein anchoring to membranes. In autophagy studies, this is applied to the covalent binding of Atg8, an autophagy protein, to a phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) in the nascent autophagosome. However, the question remains on how closely the N-maleimide PE derivative (PE-mal) mimicks the native PE in the bilayer. In the present paper, spectroscopic and calorimetric techniques have been applied to vesicles containing either PE or PE-mal (together with other phospholipids) to compare the properties of the native and derivatized forms of PE. According to differential scanning calorimetry, and to infrared spectroscopy, the presence of PE-mal did not perturb the fatty acyl chains in the bilayer. Fluorescence spectroscopy and microscopy showed that PE-mal did not alter the bilayer permeability either. However, fluorescence emission polarization of the Laurdan and DPH probes indicated an increased order, or decreased fluidity, in the bilayers containing PE-mal. In addition, the infrared spectral data from the phospholipid phosphate region revealed a PE-mal-induced conformational change in the polar heads, accompanied by increased hydration. Globally considered, the results suggest that PE-mal would be a reasonable substitute for PE in model membranes containing reconstituted proteins.

Erythrocyte Membrane Nanomechanical Rigidity Is Decreased in Obese Patients.

This work intends to describe the physical properties of red blood cell (RBC) membranes in obese adults. The hypothesis driving this research is that obesity, in addition to increasing the amount of body fat, will also modify the lipid composition of membranes in cells other than adipocytes. Forty-nine control volunteers (16 male, 33 female, BMI 21.8 ± 5.6 and 21.5 ± 4.2 kg/m2, respectively) and 52 obese subjects (16 male and 36 female, BMI 38.2± 11.0 and 40.7 ± 8.7 kg/m2, respectively) were examined. The two physical techniques applied were atomic force microscopy (AFM) in the force spectroscopy mode, which allows the micromechanical measurement of penetration forces, and fluorescence anisotropy of trimethylammonium diphenylhexatriene (TMA-DPH), which provides information on lipid order at the membrane polar-nonpolar interface. These techniques, in combination with lipidomic studies, revealed a decreased rigidity in the interfacial region of the RBC membranes of obese as compared to control patients, related to parallel changes in lipid composition. Lipidomic data show an increase in the cholesterol/phospholipid mole ratio and a decrease in sphingomyelin contents in obese membranes. ω-3 fatty acids (e.g., docosahexaenoic acid) appear to be less prevalent in obese patient RBCs, and this is the case for both the global fatty acid distribution and for the individual major lipids in the membrane phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and phosphatidylserine (PS). Moreover, some ω-6 fatty acids (e.g., arachidonic acid) are increased in obese patient RBCs. The switch from ω-3 to ω-6 lipids in obese subjects could be a major factor explaining the higher interfacial fluidity in obese patient RBC membranes.

Phase-selective staining of model and cell membranes, lipid droplets and lipoproteins with fluorescent solvatochromic pyrene probes.

The push-pull solvatochromic pyrene derivatives PA and PK have been applied to the study of model membrane vesicles, cells and purified human serum lipoproteins, using both confocal fluorescence microscopy and fluorescence spectroscopy. These polarity-sensitive probes provide information similar to that obtained by Laurdan or Prodan, i.e. mainly lipid order in biomembranes, but they have the essential advantage of being excitable by a standard 405 nm laser light, bypassing the use of multiphoton excitation. In addition, they are brighter and much more photostable than those dimethylamino naphthalene derivatives. Our results with model membrane spectroscopy (multilamellar vesicles) and with microscopy (giant unilamellar vesicles) showed the capacity of PA and PK to report differently on liquid-disordered, liquid-ordered and gel phase bilayers. Moreover, a ratiometric parameter, the Red/Blue Intensity Ratio (RBIR) could be used for inter-domain, inter-vesicle and even inter-technique comparison, and the appropriate microscopy-spectroscopy conversion coefficients could be estimated. In studies at the cellular level, PA probe stained almost exclusively the plasma membrane of red blood cells, revealing its high degree of lipid order. Using Chinese Hamster Ovary cells PA was shown to be an excellent probe for the detection of cytoplasmic lipid droplets, superior to Nile Red in that PA provides simultaneously a detailed information of membrane order in the whole cell, in which the lipid droplets appear with a very good contrast. Moreover, spectrofluorometric data of PA-stained serum lipoproteins indicated an essentially identical value of RBIR for lipid droplets and for high-density lipoproteins.

Arachidyl amido cholanoic acid improves liver glucose and lipid homeostasis in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis via AMPK and mTOR regulation.

BACKGROUND: Arachidyl amido cholanoic acid (Aramchol) is a potent downregulator of hepatic stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1) protein expression that reduces liver triglycerides and fibrosis in animal models of steatohepatitis. In a phase IIb clinical trial in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), 52 wk of treatment with Aramchol reduced blood levels of glycated hemoglobin A1c, an indicator of glycemic control. AIM: To assess lipid and glucose metabolism in mouse hepatocytes and in a NASH mouse model [induced with a 0.1% methionine and choline deficient diet (0.1MCD)] after treatment with Aramchol. METHODS: Isolated primary mouse hepatocytes were incubated with 20 µmol/L Aramchol or vehicle for 48 h. Subsequently, analyses were performed including Western blot, proteomics by mass spectrometry, and fluxomic analysis with 13C-uniformly labeled glucose. For the in vivo part of the study, male C57BL/6J mice were randomly fed a control or 0.1MCD for 4 wk and received 1 or 5 mg/kg/d Aramchol or vehicle by intragastric gavage for the last 2 wk. Liver metabolomics were assessed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-time of flight-MS for the determination of glucose metabolism-related metabolites. RESULTS: Combination of proteomics and Western blot analyses showed increased AMPK activity while the activity of nutrient sensor mTORC1 was decreased by Aramchol in hepatocytes. This translated into changes in the content of their downstream targets including proteins involved in fatty acid (FA) synthesis and oxidation [P-ACCα/ß(S79), SCD1, CPT1A/B, HADHA, and HADHB], oxidative phosphorylation (NDUFA9, NDUFB11, NDUFS1, NDUFV1, ETFDH, and UQCRC2), tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle (MDH2, SUCLA2, and SUCLG2), and ribosome (P-p70S6K[T389] and P-S6[S235/S236]). Flux experiments with 13C-uniformely labeled glucose showed that TCA cycle cataplerosis was reduced by Aramchol in hepatocytes, as indicated by the increase in the number of rounds that malate remained in the TCA cycle. Finally, liver metabolomic analysis showed that glucose homeostasis was improved by Aramchol in 0.1MCD fed mice in a dose-dependent manner, showing normalization of glucose, G6P, F6P, UDP-glucose, and Rbl5P/Xyl5P. CONCLUSION: Aramchol exerts its effect on glucose and lipid metabolism in NASH through activation of AMPK and inhibition of mTORC1, which in turn activate FA ß-oxidation and oxidative phosphorylation.

C24:0 and C24:1 sphingolipids in cholesterol-containing, five- and six-component lipid membranes.

The biophysical properties of sphingolipids containing lignoceric (C24:0) or nervonic (C24:1) fatty acyl residues have been studied in multicomponent lipid bilayers containing cholesterol (Chol), by means of confocal microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry and atomic force microscopy. Lipid membranes composed of dioleoyl phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol were prepared, with the addition of different combinations of ceramides (C24:0 and/or C24:1) and sphingomyelins (C24:0 and/or C24:1). Results point to C24:0 sphingolipids, namely lignoceroyl sphingomyelin (lSM) and lignoceroyl ceramide (lCer), having higher membrane rigidifying properties than their C24:1 homologues (nervonoyl SM, nSM, or nervonoyl Cer, nCer), although with a similar strong capacity to induce segregated gel phases. In the case of the lSM-lCer multicomponent system, the segregated phases have a peculiar fibrillar or fern-like morphology. Moreover, the combination of C24:0 and C24:1 sphingolipids generates interesting events, such as a generalized bilayer dynamism/instability of supported planar bilayers. In some cases, these sphingolipids give rise to exothermic curves in thermograms. These peculiar features were not present in previous studies of C24:1 combined with C16:0 sphingolipids. Conclusions of our study point to nSM as a key factor governing the relative distribution of ceramides when both lCer and nCer are present. The data indicate that lCer could be easier to accommodate in multicomponent bilayers than its C16:0 counterpart. These results are relevant for events of membrane platform formation, in the context of sphingolipid-based signaling cascades.

A fluorogenic cyclic peptide for imaging and quantification of drug-induced apoptosis.

Programmed cell death or apoptosis is a central biological process that is dysregulated in many diseases, including inflammatory conditions and cancer. The detection and quantification of apoptotic cells in vivo is hampered by the need for fixatives or washing steps for non-fluorogenic reagents, and by the low levels of free calcium in diseased tissues that restrict the use of annexins. In this manuscript, we report the rational design of a highly stable fluorogenic peptide (termed Apo-15) that selectively stains apoptotic cells in vitro and in vivo in a calcium-independent manner and under wash-free conditions. Furthermore, using a combination of chemical and biophysical methods, we identify phosphatidylserine as a molecular target of Apo-15. We demonstrate that Apo-15 can be used for the quantification and imaging of drug-induced apoptosis in preclinical mouse models, thus creating opportunities for assessing the in vivo efficacy of anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer therapeutics.

Characterization of monolayers and liposomes that mimic lipid composition of HeLa cells.

In this work, based on several studies, we develop an artificial lipid membrane to mimic the HeLa cell membrane using 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylcholine (POPC), 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (POPE), 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-l-serine (POPS) and cholesterol (CHOL). This is then a means to further study the fusion process of specific engineered liposomes. To characterize the mimicked HeLa cell membrane, we determined a series of surface pressure-area (π-A) isotherms and the isothermal compression modulus was calculated together with the dipole moment normal to the plane of the monolayer. The existence of laterally segregated domains was assessed using a fluorescence technique (Laurdan) and two microscopy techniques: Brewster angle microscopy (BAM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) of Langmuir-Blodgett films (LBs) extracted at 30 mN m-1. To examine the nature and composition of the observed domains, force spectroscopy (FS) based on AFM was applied to the LBs. Finally, two engineered liposome formulations were tested in a fusion assay against mimicked HeLa cell membrane LBs, showing good results and thereby opening the door to further assays and uses.

The extent of protein hydration dictates the preference for heterogeneous or homogeneous nucleation generating either parallel or antiparallel ß-sheet α-synuclein aggregates.

α-Synuclein amyloid self-assembly is the hallmark of a number of neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease, although there is still very limited understanding about the factors and mechanisms that trigger this process. Primary nucleation has been observed to be initiated in vitro at hydrophobic/hydrophilic interfaces by heterogeneous nucleation generating parallel ß-sheet aggregates, although no such interfaces have yet been identified in vivo. In this work, we have discovered that α-synuclein can self-assemble into amyloid aggregates by homogeneous nucleation, without the need of an active surface, and with a preference for an antiparallel ß-sheet arrangement. This particular structure has been previously proposed to be distinctive of stable toxic oligomers and we here demonstrate that it indeed represents the most stable structure of the preferred amyloid pathway triggered by homogeneous nucleation under limited hydration conditions, including those encountered inside α-synuclein droplets generated by liquid-liquid phase separation. In addition, our results highlight the key role that water plays not only in modulating the transition free energy of amyloid nucleation, and thus governing the initiation of the process, but also in dictating the type of preferred primary nucleation and the type of amyloid polymorph generated depending on the extent of protein hydration. These findings are particularly relevant in the context of in vivo α-synuclein aggregation where the protein can encounter a variety of hydration conditions in different cellular microenvironments, including the vicinity of lipid membranes or the interior of membraneless compartments, which could lead to the formation of remarkably different amyloid polymorphs by either heterogeneous or homogeneous nucleation.

Fast and slow biomembrane solubilizing detergents: Insights into their mechanism of action.

Detergents are water-soluble amphiphiles. Above a critical concentration they self-organize in micelles and in the presence of phospholipids mixed micelles are formed. Much information is available on the structure of these self-assemblies and on the thermodynamics of their formation. The aim of this study was to deepen our understanding of the mechanisms of solubilization. Solubilization of lipid vesicles made of egg phosphatidylcholine (PC) by twenty one commercially available, structurally heterogeneous detergents, has been assessed by a decrease in turbidity of the vesicle suspension. Both steady-state and time-resolved measurements have been performed. The results show that the detergents under study fall into one of two categories, namely fast-solubilizing and slow-solubilizing detergents. This categorization is independent of detergent concentration, i.e. a "slow" cannot be converted into a "fast" surfactant by increasing its bulk concentration. 31P-NMR spectra indicate that slow-acting detergents cause either a gradual, monotonic micellization of bilayers (sodium dodecyl sulphate), or formation of more complex, perhaps non-lamellar, non-micellar intermediates (dodecylmaltoside). In contrast, fast detergents (e.g. Triton X-100) cause lysis and reassembly of vesicles before bulk solubilization takes place. These results support the idea that membrane solubilization by detergents is rapid only when surfactant transbilayer (flipping) motion is easy.

The interaction of lipid-liganded gold clusters (Aurora ™) with lipid bilayers.

Lipid bilayers of different phospholipid compositions have been prepared, in the form of vesicles, or of supported lipid bilayers, and doped with Aurora™ at 0.1 mol%. Aurora™ consists of an Au55 gold nanoparticle (about 1.4 nm in diameter) capped with triphenylphosphine ligands and a single diglyceride (distearoyl glycerol) ligand. Gold nanoparticles have been incorporated in the past inside liposomes, or grafted onto their surfaces, with diagnostic or therapeutic aims. Including the gold nanoparticles in a stable form within the lipid bilayers has serious technical difficulties. We have tested the hypothesis that, because of the diglyceride ligand, Aurora™ would allow the easy incorporation of gold nanoclusters into cell membranes or lipid bilayers. Our results show that Aurora™ readily incorporates into lipid bilayers, particularly when they are in the fluid phase, i.e. the state in which cell membranes exist. Calorimetric, fluorescence polarization or fluorescence confocal microscopy concur in showing that bilayer-embedded Aurora™hardly changes the physical properties of the bilayers, nor does it perturb the phase equilibrium in lipid mixtures giving rise to lateral phase separation in the plane of the membrane. Atomic force microscopy shows, in fluid bilayers, well-resolved particles, 1.2-2.9 nm in height, that are interpreted as single Aurora™conjugates. Cryo-transmission electron microscopy allows the clear observation of lipid bilayers with an enhanced contrast due to the Aurora™ gold nanoparticles; the single particles can be resolved at high magnification. Our studies support the applicability of Aurora™ as a membrane-friendly form of nano-gold particles for biological research or clinical applications.

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids do not fluidify bilayers in the liquid-crystalline state.

This work reports on the effects of two omega-3 fatty acids, namely docosahexaenoic (C22:64,7,10,13,16,19) acid (DHA), and eicosapentaenoic (C20:55,8,11,14,17) acid (EPA), with oleic (C18:19) acid (OA) as a control, on the gel-liquid crystalline phase transition of dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC). Mainly differential scanning calorimetry has been used, together with Laurdan fluorescence, and confocal fluorescence microscopy. All three fatty acids DHA, EPA and OA exhibited fluidifying properties when added to the DPPC bilayers, decreasing the main transition temperature. DHA and EPA were somewhat more effective than OA in this respect, but the effects of all three were of the same order of magnitude, thus the long-chain omega-3 fatty acids failed to exhibit any peculiar fluidifying potency. The same was true when the omega-3 fatty acids were esterified in the sn-2 position of a phosphatidylcholine. Moreover the omega-3 fatty acids had very small or no effects on the fluidity of bilayers in the liquid-crystalline, or fluid disordered state (egg phosphatidylcholine and others), or in the fluid ordered state (phospholipid: cholesterol mixtures). The hypothesis that some physiological effects of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids could be related to their special fluidifying properties is not supported by these data.

The fatty acids of sphingomyelins and ceramides in mammalian tissues and cultured cells: Biophysical and physiological implications.

Sphingolipids consist of a sphingoid base N-linked to a fatty acyl chain. Among them, sphingomyelins (SM) are major components of mammalian cells, while ceramide (Cer) plays an important role as a lipid second messenger. We have performed a quantitative lipidomic study of Cer and SM species in different mammalian tissues (adipose tissue, liver, brain and blood serum of human, mice, rat and dog), as well as in cell cultures of mammalian origin (primary hepatocytes, immortalized MDCK cells, mice melanoma b16 cells, and mice primary CD4 + T lymphocytes) using an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ToF-MS)-based platform. The data have been compared with published, in general semi-quantitative, results from 20 other samples, with good agreement. The sphingoid base was predominantly d18-1 sphingosine (2-amino-4-octadecene-1,3-diol) in all cases. The fatty acid composition of SM was clearly different from that of Cer. In virtually all samples the most abundant Cer species were those containing C24:0 and C24:1 in their N-acyl chains, while the main species contained in SM was C16:0. Brain was the most divergent tissue, in which Cer and SM C18:0 were very abundant.

Clearly Detectable, Kinetically Restricted Solid-Solid Phase Transition in cis-Ceramide Monolayers.

Sphingosine [(2 S,3 R,4 E)-2-amino-4-octadecene-1,3-diol] is the most common sphingoid base in mammals. Ceramides are N-acyl sphingosines. Numerous small variations on this canonical structure are known, including the 1-deoxy, the 4,5-dihydro, and many others. However, whenever there is a Δ4 double bond, it adopts the trans (or E) configuration. We synthesized a ceramide containing 4 Z-sphingosine and palmitic acid ( cis-pCer) and studied its behavior in the form of monolayers extended on an air-water interface. cis-pCer acted very differently from the trans isomer in that, upon lateral compression of the monolayer, a solid-solid transition was clearly observed at a mean molecular area ≤44 Å2·molecule-1, whose characteristics depended on the rate of compression. The solid-solid transition, as well as states of domain coexistence, could be imaged by atomic force microscopy and by Brewster-angle microscopy. Atomistic molecular dynamics simulations provided results compatible with the experimentally observed differences between the cis and trans isomers. The data can help in the exploration of other solid-solid transitions in lipids, both in vitro and in vivo, that have gone up to now undetected because of their less obvious change in surface properties along the transition, as compared to cis-pCer.

Pb(II) Induces Scramblase Activation and Ceramide-Domain Generation in Red Blood Cells.

The mechanisms of Pb(II) toxicity have been studied in human red blood cells using confocal microscopy, immunolabeling, fluorescence-activated cell sorting and atomic force microscopy. The process follows a sequence of events, starting with calcium entry, followed by potassium release, morphological change, generation of ceramide, lipid flip-flop and finally cell lysis. Clotrimazole blocks potassium channels and the whole process is inhibited. Immunolabeling reveals the generation of ceramide-enriched domains linked to a cell morphological change, while the use of a neutral sphingomyelinase inhibitor greatly delays the process after the morphological change, and lipid flip-flop is significantly reduced. These facts point to three major checkpoints in the process: first the upstream exchange of calcium and potassium, then ceramide domain formation, and finally the downstream scramblase activation necessary for cell lysis. In addition, partial non-cytotoxic cholesterol depletion of red blood cells accelerates the process as the morphological change occurs faster. Cholesterol could have a role in modulating the properties of the ceramide-enriched domains. This work is relevant in the context of cell death, heavy metal toxicity and sphingolipid signaling.

Coating Graphene Oxide with Lipid Bilayers Greatly Decreases Its Hemolytic Properties.

Toxicity evaluation for the proper use of graphene oxide (GO) in biomedical applications involving intravenous injections is crucial, but the GO circulation time and blood interactions are largely unknown. It is thought that GO may cause physical disruption (hemolysis) of red blood cells. The aim of this work is to characterize the interaction of GO with model and cell membranes and use this knowledge to improve GO hemocompatibility. We have found that GO interacts with both neutral and negatively charged lipid membranes; binding is decreased beyond a certain concentration of negatively charged lipids and favored in high-salt buffers. After this binding occurs, some of the vesicles remain intact, while others are disrupted and spread over the GO surface. Neutral membrane vesicles tend to break down and extend over the GO, while vesicles with negatively charged membranes are mainly bound to the GO without disruption. GO also interacts with red blood cells and causes hemolysis; hemolysis is decreased when GO is previously coated with lipid membranes, particularly with pure phosphatidylcholine vesicles.

Complex Effects of 24:1 Sphingolipids in Membranes Containing Dioleoylphosphatidylcholine and Cholesterol.

The effects of C24:1 sphingolipids have been tested in phospholipid bilayers containing cholesterol. Confocal microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and atomic force microscopy imaging and force curves have been used. More precisely, the effects of C24:1 ceramide (nervonoyl ceramide, nCer) were evaluated and compared to those of C16:0 ceramide (palmitoyl ceramide, pCer) in bilayers composed basically of dioleoylphosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin (either C24:1, nSM or C16:0, pSM) and cholesterol. Combination of equimolecular amounts of C24:1 and C16:0 sphingolipids were also studied under the same conditions. Results show that both pCer and nCer are capable of forming segregated gel domains. Force spectroscopy data point to nCer having a lower stiffening effect than pCer, while the presence of nSM reduces the stiffness. DSC reveals Tm reduction by nSM in every case. Furthermore, pSM seems to better accommodate both ceramides in a single phase of intermediate properties, while nSM partial accommodation of ceramides generates different gel phases with higher stiffnesses caused by interceramide cooperation. If both pSM and nSM are present, a clear preference of both ceramides toward pSM is observed. These findings show the sharp increase in complexity when membranes exhibit different sphingolipids of varying N-acyl chains, which should be a common issue in an actual cell membrane environment.

A Trp-BODIPY cyclic peptide for fluorescence labelling of apoptotic bodies.

The rational design and synthesis of a Trp-BODIPY cyclic peptide for the fluorescent labelling of apoptotic bodies is described. Affinity assays, confocal microscopy and flow cytometry analysis confirmed the binding of the peptide to negatively-charged phospholipids associated with apoptosis, and its applicability for the detection and characterisation of subcellular structures released by apoptotic cells.

Ceramide-Induced Lamellar Gel Phases in Fluid Cell Lipid Extracts.

The effects of increasing amounts of palmitoylceramide (pCer) on human red blood cell lipid membranes have been studied using atomic force microscopy of supported lipid bilayers, in both imaging (bilayer thickness) and force-spectroscopy (nanomechanical resistance) modes. Membranes appeared homogeneous with pCer concentrations up to 10 mol % because of the high concentration of cholesterol (Chol) present in the membrane (∼45 mol %). However, the presence of pCer at 30 mol % gave rise to a clearly distinguishable segregated phase with a nanomechanical resistance 7-fold higher than the continuous phase. These experiments were validated using differential scanning calorimetry. Furthermore, Chol depletion of the bilayers caused lipid domain generation in the originally homogeneous samples, and Chol-depleted domain stiffness significantly increased with higher amounts of pCer. These results point to the possibility of different kinds of transient and noncompositionally constant, complex gel-like phases present in RBC lipid membranes rich in both pCer and Chol, in contrast to the widespread opinion about the displacements between pCer-enriched "gel-like" domains and liquid-ordered "raft-like" Chol-enriched phases. Changes in the biophysical properties of these complex gel-like phases governed by local modulation of pCer:Chol ratios could be a cell mechanism for fine-tuning the properties of membranes as required.

Identification of a Membrane-bound Prepore Species Clarifies the Lytic Mechanism of Actinoporins.

Pore-forming toxins (PFTs) are cytolytic proteins belonging to the molecular warfare apparatus of living organisms. The assembly of the functional transmembrane pore requires several intermediate steps ranging from a water-soluble monomeric species to the multimeric ensemble inserted in the cell membrane. The non-lytic oligomeric intermediate known as prepore plays an essential role in the mechanism of insertion of the class of ß-PFTs. However, in the class of α-PFTs, like the actinoporins produced by sea anemones, evidence of membrane-bound prepores is still lacking. We have employed single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and atomic force microscopy to identify, for the first time, a prepore species of the actinoporin fragaceatoxin C bound to lipid vesicles. The size of the prepore coincides with that of the functional pore, except for the transmembrane region, which is absent in the prepore. Biochemical assays indicated that, in the prepore species, the N terminus is not inserted in the bilayer but is exposed to the aqueous solution. Our study reveals the structure of the prepore in actinoporins and highlights the role of structural intermediates for the formation of cytolytic pores by an α-PFT.