Ginger and avocado as nutraceuticals for obesity and its comorbidities.

Obesity is a worldwide epidemic and is one of the factors involved in the etiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Obesity induces low-grade inflammation and oxidative stress. The treatment for obesity involves changes in diet, physical activity, and even medication and surgery. Currently, the use of nutraceutical compounds is associated with health benefits. Ginger and avocado are used for many people all around the world; however, its effect as a nutraceutical compound is less known by the general population. For this reason, we searched information of the literature to point its effects on distinct mechanisms of defense against the obesity its comorbidities. The present review aimed showing that these nutraceuticals may be useful in obesity treatment. Reports have shown that ginger and avocado induce antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects by improving enzymatic activity and modulating obesity-related impairments in the anti-inflammatory system in different tissues, without side effects. Furthermore, ginger and avocado were found to be effective in reversing the harmful effects of obesity on blood lipids. In conclusion, on the basis of the positive effects of ginger and avocado in in vitro, animal, and human studies, these nutraceuticals may be useful in obesity treatment.

A diferença de idade é um fator determinante na modulação do estresse oxidativo muscular induzido pelo exercício agudo

Resumo Este estudo teve por objetivo comparar os efeitos do exercício agudo com carga de trabalho relativa em gastrocnêmio de ratos Wistar com três e 18 meses. Os animais foram divididos em quatro grupos (n = 6): controle de três e 18 meses; exercício de três e 18 meses. Os grupos exercitados foram submetidos a uma única sessão de corrida na esteira com 60 minutos em velocidade de 0,8 km/h e 1,2 km/h. Foram analisados parâmetros do metabolismo (níveis de lactato, conteúdo de glicogênio, níveis de succinato desidrogenase, citocromo c oxidase e de estresse oxidativo (SOD, CAT e GPX). Os resultados mostraram um aumento nos marcadores metabólicos após o exercício agudo independentemente da idade dos animais e similaridade nos danos oxidativos apesar de as enzimas antioxidantes apresentarem modulação diferenciada nos animais mais velhos em comparação com animais jovens.

Abstract The effects of exercise on the generation of reactive oxygen species and the response to muscle oxidative stress determines longevity. This study compares the effects of acute exercise with similar relative workload in rats with 3 and 18 months. The animals were divided into four groups (n = 6): control 3-months; exercise 3-months; control 18-months and exercise 18-months. Exercised groups underwent to a single bout of running with 60 minutes in the speed 0.8 km/h (18 months) and 1.2 km/h (3 months). Metabolic parameters (lactate levels, glycogen content, succinate dehydrogenase levels, cytochrome c oxidase) and oxidative stress (activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase). The results showed an increase in metabolic markers after acute exercise regardless of the age and similarity in oxidative damage even if the antioxidant enzymes are age-dependent. These results suggest that the effects of acute exercise at moderate intensity, affects the metabolism independent of age, and, that the differential response in enzymatic antioxidant system between groups do not promote protection against oxidative damage.

Este estudio ha tenido como objetivo comparar los efectos del ejercicio agudo con carga de trabajo relativamente similar en el gastrocnemio de ratas Wistar con 3 y 8 meses. Se separó a los animales en cuatro grupos (n = 6): control de 3 y 18 meses, y ejercicio de 3 y 18 meses. Se sometió a los grupos de ejercicio a una sola sesión de carrera en la cinta durante 60 minutos con una velocidad de 0,8 km/h y 1,2 km/h. Se analizaron algunos parámetros del metabolismo (niveles de lactato, contenido de glucógeno, niveles de succionato-deshidrogenasa, citocromo c-oxidasa e de estrés oxidativo [superóxido-dismutasa, catalasa y glutatión-peroxidasa]). Los resultados mostraron un aumento de los marcadores metabólicos después del ejercicio agudo independientemente de la edad de los animales y la similitud de los daños oxidativos aunque las enzimas antioxidantes presentan modulación diferenciada en animales viejos en comparación con animales jóvenes.

Physiological and cytokine response to acute exercise under hypoxic conditions: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Studies have demonstrated that exercise in hypoxia situations induces a cytotoxicity effects. However, the cytokines participation in this condition is remaining unknown. Thus, the aim the present study was to evaluate physiological parameters and inflammatory profiles in response to acute exercise after five hours of hypoxic conditions. METHODS: Fourteen healthy men were distributed randomly into two groups: normoxic exercise (N.=7) and hypoxic exercise (N.=7). All volunteers were blinded to the protocol. Initially, all subjects were submitted to chamber normobaric in a room fitted for altitude simulations of up to 4500 m, equivalent to a barometric pressure of 433 mmHg. All analyses began at 7:00 a.m. and was maintained for 5 hours; the fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) was 13.5%. The groups began a 60-minute session of physical exercise starting at 11:00 a.m., at 50% of peak VO2 (50% VO2peak). Blood was collected for cytokine analysis in the morning upon waking, before the 60-minute exercise session and immediately thereafter. RESULTS: The heart rate during 60 minutes' exercise training was significantly increased in both exercise groups (P<0.05), and the oxygen saturation was reduced under hypoxic conditions during exercise (P<0.05). After exercise, significant increases were found for IL-1ra and IL-10 under hypoxic conditions (P<0.05) and for IL-6 for both groups (P<0.05). TNF-α was not altered under either environmental condition. CONCLUSIONS: Our data demonstrate that acute exercise performance in hypoxic conditions can promotes early inflammatory response, leads for immunosuppression state.

Physical Exercise Attenuates Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis by Inhibiting Peripheral Immune Response and Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) caused by demyelination, immune cell infiltration, and axonal damage. Herein, we sought to investigate the influence of physical exercise on mice experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a reported MS model. Data show that both strength and endurance training protocols consistently prevented clinical signs of EAE and decreased oxidative stress, an effect which was likely due to improving genomic antioxidant defense-nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (Nrf2)/antioxidant response elements (ARE) pathway-in the CNS. In addition, physical exercise inhibited the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-17, and IL-1ß in the spinal cord of mice with EAE. Of note, spleen cells obtained from strength training group incubated with MOG35-55 showed a significant upregulation of CD25 and IL-10 levels, with a decrease of IL-6, MCP-1, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α production, mainly, during acute and chronic phase of EAE. Moreover, these immunomodulatory effects of exercise were associated with reduced expression of adhesion molecules, especially of platelet and endothelial cell adhesion molecule 1 (PECAM-1). Finally, physical exercise also restored the expression of tight junctions in spinal cord. Together, these results demonstrate that mild/moderate physical exercise, when performed regularly in mice, consistently attenuates the progression and pathological hallmarks of EAE, thereby representing an important non-pharmacological intervention for the improvement of immune-mediated diseases such as MS. Graphical Abstract Schematic diagram illustrating the beneficial effects of physical exercise during experimental model of MS. Physical exercise, especially strength (ST) and endurance (ET) training protocols, inhibits the development and progression of disease, measured by the mean maximal clinical score (1.5 and 1.0, respectively), with inhibition of 30 % and 50 %, respectively, based on the AUC, compared with EAEuntreated group. In addition, ST and ET decreased oxidative stress, possibly, through genomic antioxidant defense, Nrf2-Keap1 signaling pathway, in the CNS. Physical exercise inhibited the production of inflammatory cytokines, such as IFN-γ, IL-17 and IL-1ß in the spinal cord after EAE induction, as well as spleen cells obtained from ST group showed a significant upregulation of regulatory T cell markers, such as CD25 and IL-10 levels, and blocked IL-6, MCP-1 and TNF-α production, mainly, during acute and chronic phase of EAE. Finally, these immunomodulatory effects of exercise were associated with inhibition of adhesion molecules and reestablishment of tight junctions expression in spinal cord tissue, thereby limiting BBB permeability and transmigration of autoreactive T cells to the CNS. NO, nitric oxide; GPx, glutathione peroxidase, GSH, glutathione; Nrf2, nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2; CNS, central nervous system; BBB, blood-brain barrier; IFN-g, interferon-gamma; IL-17, interleukin 17; IL-1b, interleukin-1beta.

Lithium and valproate act on the GSK-3ß signaling pathway to reverse manic-like behavior in an animal model of mania induced by ouabain.

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of mood stabilizers, specifically lithium (Li) and valproate (VPA), on the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway in the brains of rats subjected to the ouabain (OUA)-induced animal model of mania. In addition, the effects of AR-A014418, a GSK-3ß inhibitor, on manic-like behavior induced by OUA were evaluated. In the first experimental protocol Wistar rats received a single ICV injection of OUA or artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF). From the day following ICV injection, the rats were treated for 6 days with intraperitoneal injections of saline, Li or VPA twice a day. In the second experimental protocol, rats received OUA, aCSF, OUA plus AR-A014418, or aCSF plus AR-A014418. On the 7th day after OUA injection, locomotor activity was measured using the open-field test. In addition, we analyzed the levels of p-PI3K, p-MAPK, p-Akt, and p-GSK-3ß in the brain of rats by immunoblot. Li and VPA reversed OUA-related hyperactivity. OUA decreased p-PI3K, p-Akt and p-GSK-3ß levels. Li and VPA improved these OUA-induced cellular dysfunctions; however, the effects of the mood stabilizers were dependent on the protein and brain region analyzed. In addition, AR-A014418 reversed the manic-like behavior induced by OUA. These findings suggest that the manic-like effects of ouabain are associated with the activation of GSK-3ß, and that Li and VPA exert protective effects against OUA-induced inhibition of the GSK-3ß pathway.

Effect of Low-Power Laser (LPL) and Light-Emitting Diode (LED) on Inflammatory Response in Burn Wound Healing.

The aim of the study was to investigate the biochemical and molecular changes in the process of epidermal healing of burn injuries after therapeutic treatment with low-power laser (LPL) and light-emitting diode (LED). Rats were divided into six groups: skin without injury (Sham), burn wounds (BWs), BW + 660-nm LPL, BW + 904-nm LPL, BW + 632-nm LED, and BW + 850-nm LED. The burn wound model was performed using a 100 °C copper plate, with 10 s of contact in the skin. The irradiations started 24 h after the lesion and were performed daily for 7 days. The burn wound groups showed an increase in the superoxide production, dichlorofluorescein, nitrites, and high protein oxidative damage. The activities of glutathione peroxidase and catalase were also increased, and a significant reduction in glutathione levels was observed compared to the control group. However, treatments with 660-nm LPL and 850-nm LED promoted protection against to oxidative stress, and similar results were also observed in the IL-6 and pERK1/2 expression. Taken together, these results suggest that LPL 660 nm and LED 850 nm appear reduced in the inflammatory response and oxidative stress parameters, thus decreasing dermal necrosis and increasing granulation tissue formation, in fact accelerating the repair of burn wounds.

Excessive eccentric exercise-induced overtraining model leads to endoplasmic reticulum stress in mice skeletal muscles.

AIMS: The present study verified the responses of selected endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress proteins (i.e., BiP, ATF-6, pIRE1, pPERK, and peIF2alpha) in mice skeletal muscles after three different running overtraining (OT) protocols with same external load (i.e., intensity vs. volume), but performed in downhill, uphill and without inclination. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The rodents were randomly divided into control (CT; sedentary mice), overtrained by downhill running (OTR/down), overtrained by uphill running (OTR/up) and overtrained by running without inclination (OTR) groups. The incremental load test and exhaustive test were used as performance parameters. Forty hours after the exhaustive test performed at the end of the OT protocols (i.e., at the end of week 8) and after a 2-week total recovery period (i.e., at the end of week 10), the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and soleus muscles were removed and used for immunoblotting. KEY FINDINGS: For both skeletal muscle types, the OTR/down protocol increased the pIRE-1, pPERK and peIF2alpha, which were not normalized after the total recovery period. At the end of week 8, the other two OT protocols up-regulated the BiP, pPERK and peIF2alpha levels only for the soleus muscle. These ER stress proteins were not normalized after the total recovery period for the OTR/up group. SIGNIFICANCE: The above findings suggest that the OTR/down protocol-induced skeletal muscle ER stress may be linked to a pathological condition in EDL and soleus muscles.

Downhill Running Excessive Training Inhibits Hypertrophy in Mice Skeletal Muscles with Different Fiber Type Composition.

The aim of this study was to verify the effects of running overtraining protocols performed in downhill, uphill, and without inclination on the proteins related to hypertrophy signaling pathway in extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and soleus of C57BL/6 mice. We also performed histological and stereological analyses. Rodents were divided into control (CT; sedentary mice), overtrained by downhill running (OTR/down), overtrained by uphill running (OTR/up), and overtrained by running without inclination (OTR). The incremental load, exhaustive, and grip force tests were used as performance evaluation parameters. 36 h after the grip force test, EDL and soleus were removed and immediately used for immunoblotting analysis or stored at -80°C for histological and stereological analyses. For EDL, OTR/down decreased the protein kinase B (Akt) and tuberous sclerosis protein 2 (TSC2) phosphorylation (p), and increased myostatin, receptor-activated Smads (pSMAD2-3), and insulin receptor substrate-1 (pIRS-1; Ser307/636). OTR/down also presented low and high relative proportions of cytoplasm and connective tissue, respectively. OTR/up increased the mammalian target of rapamycin (pmTOR), 70-kDa ribosomal protein S6 kinase 1 (pS6K1) and pSMAD2-3, and decreased pTSC2. OTR decreased pTSC2 and increased pIRS-1 (Ser636). For soleus, OTR/down increased S6 ribosomal protein (pS6RP) and pSMAD2-3, and decreased pIRS-1 (Ser639). OTR/up decreased pS6K1, pS6RP and pIRS-1 (Ser639), and increased pTSC2 (Ser939), and pSMAD2-3. OTR increased pS6RP, 4E-binding protein-1 (p4E-BP1), pTSC2 (Ser939), and pSMAD2-3, and decreased pIRS-1 (Ser639). In summary, OTR/down inhibited the skeletal muscle hypertrophy with concomitant signs of atrophy in EDL. The effects of OTR/up and OTR depended on the analyzed skeletal muscle type.

The role of continuous versus fractionated physical training on muscle oxidative stress parameters and calcium-handling proteins in aged rats.

Age-associated decline in skeletal muscle mass and strength is associated with oxidative stress and Ca(2+) homeostasis disturbance. Exercise should be considered a viable modality to combat aging of skeletal muscle. This study aimed to investigate whether continuous and fractionated training could be useful tools to attenuate oxidative damage and retain calcium-handling proteins. We conducted the study using 24-month-old male Wistar rats, divided into control, continuous, and fractionated groups. Animals ran at 13 m min(-1) for five consecutive days (except weekends) for 6 weeks, for a total period of 42 days. Each session comprised 45 min of exercise, either continuous or divided into three daily sessions of 15 min each. Metabolic and oxidative stress markers, protein levels of mitochondrial transcription factors, and calcium-handling proteins were analyzed. Continuous exercise resulted in reduced ROS production as well as showed a decrease in TBARS levels and carbonyl content. On the other hand, fractionated training increased the antioxidant enzyme activities. The ryanodine receptor and phospholamban protein were regulated by continuous training while sodium calcium exchange protein was increased by the fractionated training. These data suggest that intracellular Ca(2+) can be modulated by various training stimuli. In addition, the modulation of oxidative stress by continuous and fractionated training may play an important regulatory role in the muscular contraction mechanism of aged rats, due to changes in calcium metabolism.

Physical Training Regulates Mitochondrial Parameters and Neuroinflammatory Mechanisms in an Experimental Model of Parkinson's Disease.

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of two different protocols for physical exercise (strength and aerobic training) on mitochondrial and inflammatory parameters in the 6-OHDA experimental model of Parkinson's disease. Six experimental groups were used (n = 12 per group): untrained + vehicle (Sham), strength training + vehicle (STR), treadmill training + vehicle (TTR), untrained + 6-OHDA (U + 6-OHDA), strength training + 6-OHDA (STR + 6-OHDA), and treadmill training + 6-OHDA (TTR + 6-OHDA). The mice were subjected to strength or treadmill training for 8 weeks. PD was induced via striatal injection of 6-OHDA 24 h after the last exercise session. Mice were euthanized by cervical dislocation and the striatum and hippocampus were homogenized to determine levels of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) p65, and sirtuin 1 (Sirt1) by western blot; tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß), IL-17, interferon-γ (IFN-γ), and transforming growth factor ß1 (TGF-ß1) levels by ELISA; NO content; and complex I (CI) activity. STR + 6-OHDA mice had higher TH levels and CI activity and lower NF-κB p65 and IFN-γ levels in the striatum compared to U + 6-OHDA mice, while TTR + 6-OHDA mice had higher Sirt1 levels and CI activity in both the striatum and the hippocampus, compared to U + 6-OHDA mice. Strength training increased CI activity and TH and Sirt1 levels and reduced NO, NF-κB p65, TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1ß, and TGF-ß1 levels in 6-OHDA mice, while treadmill exercise increased CI activity and NO, TH, and Sirt1 levels and reduced NF-κB p65, TNF-α, IFN-γ, and IL-1ß levels. Our results demonstrated that both treadmill training and strength training promote neuroprotection, possibly by stimulating Sirt1 activity, which may in turn regulate both mitochondrial function and neuroinflammation via deacetylation of NF-κB p65. Changes in nitric oxide levels may also be a mechanism by which 6-OHDA-induced inflammation is controlled.

Downhill Running-Based Overtraining Protocol Improves Hepatic Insulin Signaling Pathway without Concomitant Decrease of Inflammatory Proteins.

The purpose of this study was to verify the effects of overtraining (OT) on insulin, inflammatory and gluconeogenesis signaling pathways in the livers of mice. Rodents were divided into control (CT), overtrained by downhill running (OTR/down), overtrained by uphill running (OTR/up) and overtrained by running without inclination (OTR). Rotarod, incremental load, exhaustive and grip force tests were used to evaluate performance. Thirty-six hours after a grip force test, the livers were extracted for subsequent protein analyses. The phosphorylation of insulin receptor beta (pIRbeta), glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (pGSK3beta) and forkhead box O1 (pFoxo1) increased in OTR/down versus CT. pGSK3beta was higher in OTR/up versus CT, and pFoxo1 was higher in OTR/up and OTR versus CT. Phosphorylation of protein kinase B (pAkt) and insulin receptor substrate 1 (pIRS-1) were higher in OTR/up versus CT and OTR/down. The phosphorylation of IκB kinase alpha and beta (pIKKalpha/beta) was higher in all OT protocols versus CT, and the phosphorylation of stress-activated protein kinases/Jun amino-terminal kinases (pSAPK-JNK) was higher in OTR/down versus CT. Protein levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1alpha (PGC-1alpha) and hepatocyte nuclear factor 4alpha (HNF-4alpha) were higher in OTR versus CT. In summary, OTR/down improved the major proteins of insulin signaling pathway but up-regulated TRB3, an Akt inhibitor, and its association with Akt.

Effects of mood stabilizers on oxidative stress-induced cell death signaling pathways in the brains of rats subjected to the ouabain-induced animal model of mania: Mood stabilizers exert protective effects against ouabain-induced activation of the cell death pathway.

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of mood stabilizers, specifically lithium (Li) and valproate (VPA), on mitochondrial superoxide, lipid peroxidation, and proteins involved in cell death signaling pathways in the brains of rats subjected to the ouabain-induced animal model of mania. Wistar rats received Li, VPA, or saline twice a day for 13 days. On the 7th day of treatment, the animals received a single intracerebroventricular injection of ouabain or aCSF. After the ICV injection, the treatment with mood stabilizers continued for 6 additional days. The locomotor activity of rats was measured using the open-field test. In addition, we analyzed oxidative stress parameters, specifically levels of phosphorylated p53 (pp53), BAX and Bcl-2 in the brain of rats by immunoblot. Li and VPA reversed ouabain-related hyperactivity. Ouabain decreased Bcl-2 levels and increased the oxidative stress parameters BAX and pp53 in the brains of rats. Li and VPA improved these ouabain-induced cellular dysfunctions; however, the effects of the mood stabilizers were dependent on the protein and brain region analyzed. These findings suggest that the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase can be an important link between oxidative damage and the consequent reduction of neuronal and glial density, which are both observed in BD, and that Li and VPA exert protective effects against ouabain-induced activation of the apoptosis pathway.

Effects of phonophoresis and gold nanoparticles in experimental model of muscle overuse: role of oxidative stress.

The aim of the study described here was to investigate the effects of pulsed ultrasound and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) on behavioral, inflammatory and oxidative stress parameters in an experimental model of overuse. Wistar rats performed 21 d of exercise on a treadmill at different intensities and were exposed to ultrasound in the presence or absence of AuNPs. The overuse model promoted behavioral changes and increased creatine kinase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activity, as well as the levels of superoxide, nitrotyrosine, nitric oxide, thiobarbituric acid reactive substance, carbonyl, tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin-6. These values were significantly decreased by AuNPs and by AuNPs plus ultrasound. Catalase activity remained unchanged and the glutathione level increased significantly after exposure to AuNPs plus ultrasound. These results suggest a susceptibility to anxiety as well as elevated levels of oxidative stress. However, therapeutic interventions with AuNPs plus ultrasound reduced the production of oxidants and oxidative damage and improved the anti-oxidant defense system.

Hypothalamic S1P/S1PR1 axis controls energy homeostasis.

Sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 1 (S1PR1) is a G-protein-coupled receptor for sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) that has a role in many physiological and pathophysiological processes. Here we show that the S1P/S1PR1 signalling pathway in hypothalamic neurons regulates energy homeostasis in rodents. We demonstrate that S1PR1 protein is highly enriched in hypothalamic POMC neurons of rats. Intracerebroventricular injections of the bioactive lipid, S1P, reduce food consumption and increase rat energy expenditure through persistent activation of STAT3 and the melanocortin system. Similarly, the selective disruption of hypothalamic S1PR1 increases food intake and reduces the respiratory exchange ratio. We further show that STAT3 controls S1PR1 expression in neurons via a positive feedback mechanism. Interestingly, several models of obesity and cancer anorexia display an imbalance of hypothalamic S1P/S1PR1/STAT3 axis, whereas pharmacological intervention ameliorates these phenotypes. Taken together, our data demonstrate that the neuronal S1P/S1PR1/STAT3 signalling axis plays a critical role in the control of energy homeostasis in rats.

Atypical transforming growth factor-ß signaling in the hypothalamus is linked to diabetes.

Aging and a high-fat diet are predisposing factors for type 2 diabetes. A study in mice suggests that dietary fat and aging lead to atypical transforming growth factor-ß1 signaling in the hypothalamus, which disturbs whole-body glucose regulation.

Treadmill training increases SIRT-1 and PGC-1 α protein levels and AMPK phosphorylation in quadriceps of middle-aged rats in an intensity-dependent manner.

The present study investigated the effects of running at 0.8 or 1.2 km/h on inflammatory proteins (i.e., protein levels of TNF- α , IL-1 ß , and NF- κ B) and metabolic proteins (i.e., protein levels of SIRT-1 and PGC-1 α , and AMPK phosphorylation) in quadriceps of rats. Male Wistar rats at 3 (young) and 18 months (middle-aged rats) of age were divided into nonexercised (NE) and exercised at 0.8 or 1.2 km/h. The rats were trained on treadmill, 50 min per day, 5 days per week, during 8 weeks. Forty-eight hours after the last training session, muscles were removed, homogenized, and analyzed using biochemical and western blot techniques. Our results showed that: (a) running at 0.8 km/h decreased the inflammatory proteins and increased the metabolic proteins compared with NE rats; (b) these responses were lower for the inflammatory proteins and higher for the metabolic proteins in young rats compared with middle-aged rats; (c) running at 1.2 km/h decreased the inflammatory proteins and increased the metabolic proteins compared with 0.8 km/h; (d) these responses were similar between young and middle-aged rats when trained at 1.2 km. In summary, the age-related increases in inflammatory proteins, and the age-related declines in metabolic proteins can be reversed and largely improved by treadmill training.