Computed Tomography Topographical Analysis of Incomplete Humeral Intracondylar Fissures in English Springer Spaniel Dogs.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to use computed tomography (CT) images obtained from English springer spaniels (ESS) with different sizes of humeral intracondylar fissure (HIF) to describe the typical shape, origin and a possible propagation pattern of HIF in this breed. STUDY DESIGN: It is a retrospective analysis of 32 elbow CT from 27 ESS with incomplete HIF. Measurements included HIF articular surface length, centre of HIF at articular surface relative to the caudal edge of the supratrochlear foramen (CHIF), HIF depth and sagittal area of fissure. Measurement of isthmus area and diameter was obtained for each elbow. Humeral intracondylar fissure measurements were analysed as proportions of the isthmus. For parts of analysis, elbows were grouped by HIF area as a percentage of isthmus area (%HIF) into less than 20% (n = 10), 20 to less than 40% (n = 8), 40 to less than 60% (n = 9) and 60 to less than 90% (n = 5). RESULTS: The mean isthmus diameter was 12.31 mm (range: 10.96-13.69 mm). Mean CHIF for %HIF groups less than 20%, 20 to less than 40%, 40 to less than 60% and 60 to less than 90% were 57, 74, 86 and 96 degrees, respectively. The less than 20% group was significantly lower than 20 to less than 40% group (p = 0.035) and 40 to less than 60% and 60 to less than 90% groups (p < 0.001); the 20 to less than 40% group was significantly lower than the 60 to less than 90% group (p = 0.015). Humeral intracondylar fissure articular surface length increased in a sigmoidal fashion relative to %HIF, corresponding to segmental enlargement of the fissure as %HIF increases. CONCLUSION: In ESS, HIF typically originates approximately 57 degrees caudal to the supratrochlear foramen in the sagittal plane and may propagate in a segmental fashion with lesser propagation through the proximal intracondylar region.

Design and topographic evaluation of a canine humeral anatomic plating system (CHAPS) for humeral condylar fracture repair in spaniels.

OBJECTIVE: To design a precontoured plating system for humeral condylar fracture repair in spaniels with humeral intracondylar fissure (HIF) and quantify accuracy of fit of the system on 3D printed bone models. STUDY DESIGN: Experimental on 3D printed models. METHODS: The plating system was based on morphometric data obtained from CT. Plates were applied to models and impression material was measured under the plates at points of interest to define plate bone gap (PBG). Data on locking screw interference on plate application were also obtained. RESULTS: Eleven elbows models were plated. Statistical analysis to assess for any difference in PBG measurements between left and right humuri revealed two loci (3 and 17) under the lateral plate and two loci (3 and 17) under the medial plate. On cumulate portion analysis, 67% of lateral plate loci and 80% of medial plate loci had a PBG of ≤2 mm respectively. An incidence of 2.1% (3/143) screw interference occurred. CONCLUSION: Design of a contoured plating system for application to humeral models from spaniels with HIF and its application with objective measurement of PBG is described. The majority of the loci measured under both lateral and medial plates had a BPG of ≤2 mm and the incidence of locking screw interference on plate application was low. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: This novel system may have application for the stabilization of humeral condylar fractures in spaniels avoiding the need for plate contouring and minimizing the incidence of locking screw interference.

Efficacy of autologous mesenchymal stromal cell treatment for chronic degenerative musculoskeletal conditions in dogs: A retrospective study.

Introduction: The objective of this study was to retrospectively analyze clinical data from a referral regenerative medicine practice, to investigate the efficacy of autologous mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) in 245 dogs deemed unresponsive to conventional treatment by their referring vet. Methods: Diagnostic imaging [radiology and musculoskeletal ultrasound (MSK-US)] identified musculoskeletal pathology holistically. MSCs, produced according to current guidelines, were initially administered with PRP by targeted injection to joints and/or tendons, with a second MSC monotherapy administered 12 weeks later to dogs with severe pathology and/or previous elbow arthroscopic interventions. Dogs with lumbosacral disease received epidural MSCs with additional intravenous MSCs administered to dogs with spondylosis of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine. All dogs received laser therapy at 10 J/cm2 at the time of treatment and for 5 sessions thereafter. Objective outcome measures (stance analysis, range of joint motion, pressure algometry) and validated subjective outcome measures (owner reported VetMetrica HRQL™ and veterinary pain and quality of life impact scores) were used to investigate short and long-term (6-104 weeks) efficacy. Outcome data were collected at predetermined time windows (0-6, 7-12, 13-18, 19-24, 25-48, 49-78, 79-104) weeks after initial treatment. Results: There were statistically significant improvements in post compared with pre-treatment measures at all time windows in stance analysis, shoulder and hip range of motion, lumbosacral pressure algometry, and to 49-78 weeks in carpus and elbow range of motion. Improvements in 4 domains of quality of life as measured by VetMetricaTM were statistically significant, as were scores in vet-assessed pain and quality of life impact. In dogs receiving one initial treatment the mean time before a second treatment was required to maintain improvements in objective measures was 451 days. Diagnostic imaging confirmed the regenerative effects of MSCs in tendinopathies by demonstrating resolution of abnormal mineralization and restoration of normal fiber patterns. Discussion: This represents the first study using "real-world" data to show that cell-based therapies, injected into multiple areas of musculoskeletal pathology in a targeted holistic approach, resulted in rapid and profound positive effects on the patient's pain state and quality of life which was maintained with repeat treatment for up to 2 years.

Long-term woodland restoration on lowland farmland through passive rewilding.

Natural succession of vegetation on abandoned farmland provides opportunities for passive rewilding to re-establish native woodlands, but in Western Europe the patterns and outcomes of vegetation colonisation are poorly known. We combine time series of field surveys and remote sensing (lidar and photogrammetry) to study woodland development on two farmland fields in England over 24 and 59 years respectively: the New Wilderness (2.1 ha) abandoned in 1996, and the Old Wilderness (3.9 ha) abandoned in 1961, both adjacent to ancient woodland. Woody vegetation colonisation of the New Wilderness was rapid, with 86% vegetation cover averaging 2.9 m tall after 23 years post-abandonment. The Old Wilderness had 100% woody cover averaging 13.1 m tall after 53 years, with an overstorey tree-canopy (≥ 8 m tall) covering 91%. By this stage, the structural characteristics of the Old Wilderness were approaching those of neighbouring ancient woodlands. The woody species composition of both Wildernesses differed from ancient woodland, being dominated by animal-dispersed pedunculate oak Quercus robur and berry-bearing shrubs. Tree colonisation was spatially clustered, with wind-dispersed common ash Fraxinus excelsior mostly occurring near seed sources in adjacent woodland and hedgerows, and clusters of oaks probably resulting from acorn hoarding by birds and rodents. After 24 years the density of live trees in the New Wilderness was 132/ha (57% oak), with 390/ha (52% oak) in the Old Wilderness after 59 years; deadwood accounted for 8% of tree stems in the former and 14% in the latter. Passive rewilding of these 'Wilderness' sites shows that closed-canopy woodland readily re-established on abandoned farmland close to existing woodland, it was resilient to the presence of herbivores and variable weather, and approached the height structure of older woods within approximately 50 years. This study provides valuable long-term reference data in temperate Europe, helping to inform predictions of the potential outcomes of widespread abandonment of agricultural land in this region.

Inhibitory effects of climate change on the growth and extracellular enzyme activities of a widespread Antarctic soil fungus.

Temperatures approaching or exceeding 20°C have been measured during summer in polar regions at the surfaces of barren fellfield soils under cloudless skies around solar noon. However, despite the upper temperature limit for the growth of cold-adapted microbes-which are abundant in polar soils and have pivotal roles in nutrient cycling-typically being close to this temperature, previous studies have not addressed the consequences of climate change for the metabolism of these organisms in the natural environment. Here in a 5-year field experiment on Alexander Island in the southern maritime Antarctic, we show that the abundance of Pseudogymnoascus roseus, the most widespread decomposer fungus in maritime Antarctic fellfield soils, is reduced by 1-2 orders of magnitude when irrigated and nutrient-amended soils are warmed to >20°C during summer. Laboratory experiments under conditions mimicking those during midsummer in the natural environment indicated that the hyphal extension rates of P. roseus isolates and the activities of five extracellular enzymes are reduced by 54%-96% at high water availability after exposure to temperatures cycling daily from 2 to 21°C and 2 to 24°C, relative to temperatures cycling from 2 to 18°C. Given that the temperatures of surface soils at the study site already reach 19°C during midsummer, the observations reported here suggest that, at predicted rates of warming arising from moderate greenhouse gas emissions, inhibitory effects of climate change on the metabolism of P. roseus could manifest themselves within the next few decades. Furthermore, with peak temperatures at the surfaces of fellfield soils at other maritime Antarctic locations and in High Arctic and alpine regions already exceeding 20°C during summer, the observations suggest that climate warming has the potential to inhibit the growth of other cold-adapted microbes, with negative effects on soils as the Earth's climate continues to warm.

Circadian preferences of birdwatchers in Poland: do "owls" prefer watching night birds, and "larks" prefer daytime ones?

Birdwatching is a very popular and increasing leisure activity, and the study and observation of birds is more popular in the morning due to the greater activity among birds at that time of day. The aim of our study was to find out whether there was a relationship between the circadian preference of observers and their favourite bird species and whether it was influenced by such factors as professional status, age and gender. In an e-mail survey we asked a total of 433 Polish ornithologists (professionals) or birdwatchers (non-professionals) for their morningness-eveningness preferences (four categories) and favourite (open choice) bird species and received 143 responses. The temporal (circadian) preferences of respondents declined from early morning (35.7%) to evening/nighttime (11.4%). Circadian preference categories differed significantly by age, with early morning respondents significantly older. These preference categories did not differ significantly in terms of response time to the survey invitation or in the percentage of their favourite birds that were categorised as daytime birds. A total of 204 species were identified as favourite birds of which 34 species were mentioned by five or more respondents, with only two, the common crane Grus grus and the Eurasian pygmy owl Glaucidium passerinum mentioned by more than 10% of respondents. The white stork Ciconia ciconia was more popular with professionals than non-professionals and the swift Apus apus less popular. A significant gender × circadian preference interaction was detected for the percentage of favourite birds categorised as daytime birds, with fewer daytime birds among early morning female recorders. The presented results are obviously of a correlative nature, but open the door for further, more advanced study and suggest there may be a need to investigate temporal biases when analysing citizen-based data.

Birds Drinking Alcohol: Species and Relationship with People. A Review of Information from Scientific Literature and Social Media.

Ethanol is a natural by-product of the fermentation process of fruit sugars and is occasionally consumed by fruit-eating and tree sap drinking birds. Information on this form of alcohol consumption features in the scientific literature. However, as pets or as wild animals living close to humans in urban habitats, birds have increasing possibilities to consume alcohol from beverages, such as beer, wine or spirits. Some observations have been discussed in a light-hearted manner in mass media and social media, but without any generalization of why some bird species drink the beverages intentionally or unintentionally provided by humans. To check which species and in what circumstances birds drink alcohol and how this is evaluated by humans, we reviewed the scientific literature and analysed videos from YouTube. In total we found and analysed 8 scientific papers and 179 YouTube videos, from which we identified at least 55 species (in some cases not all birds were identified to species level), 11 in the scientific literature and 47 in videos. The distribution of these species over the avian phylogenetic tree suggests that the origin of this convergent behaviour is mainly by human influence. The two data sources differed in the species covered. Videos typically presented interactions of birds with human-provided alcoholic beverages, and were dominated by two groups of intelligent birds: parrots and corvids. The popularity of YouTube videos for a particular species was positively correlated with the general popularity of the species as measured by the number of hits (results listed) on Google. Human responses to the videos were generally very positive and we analysed how the responses were influenced by factors derived from viewing the videos. Moreover, YouTube videos also provide information on at least 47 new bird species not previously mentioned as using alcohol, and our results suggest that parrots in particular can be potentially good candidates for future restricted laboratory studies on the effect of ethanol on birds and their relationship with humans.

Old Plants, New Tricks: Phenological Research Using Herbarium Specimens.

The timing of phenological events, such as leaf-out and flowering, strongly influence plant success and their study is vital to understanding how plants will respond to climate change. Phenological research, however, is often limited by the temporal, geographic, or phylogenetic scope of available data. Hundreds of millions of plant specimens in herbaria worldwide offer a potential solution to this problem, especially as digitization efforts drastically improve access to collections. Herbarium specimens represent snapshots of phenological events and have been reliably used to characterize phenological responses to climate. We review the current state of herbarium-based phenological research, identify potential biases and limitations in the collection, digitization, and interpretation of specimen data, and discuss future opportunities for phenological investigations using herbarium specimens.

Long-term effect of temperature on honey yield and honeybee phenology.

There is growing concern about declines in pollinator species, and more recently reservations have been expressed about mismatch in plant-pollinator synchrony as a consequence of phenological change caused by rising temperatures. Long-term changes in honeybee Apis mellifera phenology may have major consequences for agriculture, especially the pollinator market, as well as for honey production. To date, these aspects have received only modest attention. In the current study, we examine honeybee and beekeeping activity in southern Poland for the period 1965-2010, supplemented by hive yields from a beekeeper in southern UK in the same period. We show that despite negative reports on honeybee condition, and documented climate change, the studied apiary managed to show a marked increase in honey production over the 46 year study period, as did that from the UK. The proportion of the annual yield originating from the first harvest decreased during the study period and was associated with rising temperatures in summer. Honeybee spring phenology showed strong negative relationships with temperature but no overall change through time because temperatures of key early spring months had not increased significantly. In contrast, increasing yields and an increased number of harvests (and hence a later final harvest and longer season) were detected and were related to rising temperatures in late spring and in summer.

Differences between urban and rural hedges in England revealed by a citizen science project.

BACKGROUND: Hedges are both ecologically and culturally important and are a distinctive feature of the British landscape. However the overall length of hedges across Great Britain is decreasing. Current challenges in studying hedges relate to the dominance of research on rural, as opposed to urban, hedges, and their variability and geographical breadth. To help address these challenges and to educate the public on the importance of hedge habitats for wildlife, in 2010 the Open Air Laboratories (OPAL) programme coordinated a hedge-focused citizen science survey. RESULTS: Results from 2891 surveys were analysed. Woody plant species differed significantly between urban and rural areas. Beech, Holly, Ivy, Laurel, Privet and Yew were more commonly recorded in urban hedges whereas Blackthorn, Bramble, Dog Rose, Elder and Hawthorn were recorded more often in rural hedges. Urban and rural differences were shown for some groups of invertebrates. Ants, earwigs and shieldbugs were recorded more frequently in urban hedges whereas blowflies, caterpillars, harvestmen, other beetles, spiders and weevils were recorded more frequently in rural hedges. Spiders were the most frequently recorded invertebrate across all surveys. The presence of hard surfaces adjacent to the hedge was influential on hedge structure, number and diversity of plant species, amount of food available for wildlife and invertebrate number and diversity. In urban hedges with one adjacent hard surface, the food available for wildlife was significantly reduced and in rural hedges, one adjacent hard surface affected the diversity of invertebrates. CONCLUSIONS: This research highlights that urban hedges may be important habitats for wildlife and that hard surfaces may have an impact on both the number and diversity of plant species and the number and diversity of invertebrates. This study demonstrates that citizen science programmes that focus on hedge surveillance can work and have the added benefit of educating the public on the importance of hedgerow habitats.

Phenological sensitivity to climate across taxa and trophic levels.

Differences in phenological responses to climate change among species can desynchronise ecological interactions and thereby threaten ecosystem function. To assess these threats, we must quantify the relative impact of climate change on species at different trophic levels. Here, we apply a Climate Sensitivity Profile approach to 10,003 terrestrial and aquatic phenological data sets, spatially matched to temperature and precipitation data, to quantify variation in climate sensitivity. The direction, magnitude and timing of climate sensitivity varied markedly among organisms within taxonomic and trophic groups. Despite this variability, we detected systematic variation in the direction and magnitude of phenological climate sensitivity. Secondary consumers showed consistently lower climate sensitivity than other groups. We used mid-century climate change projections to estimate that the timing of phenological events could change more for primary consumers than for species in other trophic levels (6.2 versus 2.5-2.9 days earlier on average), with substantial taxonomic variation (1.1-14.8 days earlier on average).

Can we detect a nonlinear response to temperature in European plant phenology?

Over a large temperature range, the statistical association between spring phenology and temperature is often regarded and treated as a linear function. There are suggestions that a sigmoidal relationship with definite upper and lower limits to leaf unfolding and flowering onset dates might be more realistic. We utilised European plant phenological records provided by the European phenology database PEP725 and gridded monthly mean temperature data for 1951-2012 calculated from the ENSEMBLES data set E-OBS (version 7.0). We analysed 568,456 observations of ten spring flowering or leafing phenophases derived from 3657 stations in 22 European countries in order to detect possible nonlinear responses to temperature. Linear response rates averaged for all stations ranged between -7.7 (flowering of hazel) and -2.7 days °C-1 (leaf unfolding of beech and oak). A lower sensitivity at the cooler end of the temperature range was detected for most phenophases. However, a similar lower sensitivity at the warmer end was not that evident. For only ∼14 % of the station time series (where a comparison between linear and nonlinear model was possible), nonlinear models described the relationship significantly better than linear models. Although in most cases simple linear models might be still sufficient to predict future changes, this linear relationship between phenology and temperature might not be appropriate when incorporating phenological data of very cold (and possibly very warm) environments. For these cases, extrapolations on the basis of linear models would introduce uncertainty in expected ecosystem changes.

The phenology of winter rye in Poland: an analysis of long-term experimental data.

The study of the phenology of crops, although quite popular, has limitations, mainly because of frequent changes to crop varieties and management practices. Here, we present data on the phenology and yield of winter rye in western Poland collected between 1957 and 2012 from a long-term field experiment. Data were examined for trends through time and compared to climatological factors using regression analysis. Both annual air temperature and precipitation increased during the study period, equivalent to 2 °C and 186 mm, respectively, over the 52-year period for which met data were available. We detected significant delays in sowing date and recently in emergence, but significant advances were apparent in full flowering date equivalent to 4 days/decade. Yield and plant density experienced a step like change in 1986; yield increasing by ca. 70 % and plant density increasing by ca. 50 %, almost coinciding with a similar change in annual mean temperature, but most likely caused by a changed seed rate and use of herbicides. Future climate change is expected to have a greater impact on this crop, but farmers may be able to adapt to these changes by modifying water regimes, using new machinery and sowing new rye varieties.

Winter Bird Assemblages in Rural and Urban Environments: A National Survey.

Urban development has a marked effect on the ecological and behavioural traits of many living organisms, including birds. In this paper, we analysed differences in the numbers of wintering birds between rural and urban areas in Poland. We also analysed species richness and abundance in relation to longitude, latitude, human population size, and landscape structure. All these parameters were analysed using modern statistical techniques incorporating species detectability. We counted birds in 156 squares (0.25 km2 each) in December 2012 and again in January 2013 in locations in and around 26 urban areas across Poland (in each urban area we surveyed 3 squares and 3 squares in nearby rural areas). The influence of twelve potential environmental variables on species abundance and richness was assessed with Generalized Linear Mixed Models, Principal Components and Detrended Correspondence Analyses. Totals of 72 bird species and 89,710 individual birds were recorded in this study. On average (± SE) 13.3 ± 0.3 species and 288 ± 14 individuals were recorded in each square in each survey. A formal comparison of rural and urban areas revealed that 27 species had a significant preference; 17 to rural areas and 10 to urban areas. Moreover, overall abundance in urban areas was more than double that of rural areas. There was almost a complete separation of rural and urban bird communities. Significantly more birds and more bird species were recorded in January compared to December. We conclude that differences between rural and urban areas in terms of winter conditions and the availability of resources are reflected in different bird communities in the two environments.

Urban and rural habitats differ in number and type of bird feeders and in bird species consuming supplementary food.

Bird feeding is one of the most widespread direct interactions between man and nature, and this has important social and environmental consequences. However, this activity can differ between rural and urban habitats, due to inter alia habitat structure, human behaviour and the composition of wintering bird communities. We counted birds in 156 squares (0.25 km(2) each) in December 2012 and again in January 2013 in locations in and around 26 towns and cities across Poland (in each urban area, we surveyed 3 squares and also 3 squares in nearby rural areas). At each count, we noted the number of bird feeders, the number of bird feeders with food, the type of feeders, additional food supplies potentially available for birds (bread offered by people, bins) and finally the birds themselves. In winter, urban and rural areas differ in the availability of food offered intentionally and unintentionally to birds by humans. Both types of food availability are higher in urban areas. Our findings suggest that different types of bird feeder support only those species specialized for that particular food type and this relationship is similar in urban and rural areas.

Climate sensitivity and variation in first flowering of 26 Narcissus cultivars.

The first flowering dates of 26 Narcissus cultivars were recorded over a 27-year period on the island of Guernsey, within the English Channel. We analysed flowering trends over time and relationships with climate variables. The study revealed that earlier flowering cultivars advanced most and were more variable than later flowering Narcissus. We furthermore discovered a strong relationship between flowering and climate variables, with temperature appearing to be the main driver. Whilst the first flowering date averaged over all cultivars did show a significant advance, this was significant for only one of the individual cultivars. This is likely because temperatures from December to March had not significantly increased in Guernsey during the study period (1985 to 2011).

Changes in first flowering dates and flowering duration of 232 plant species on the island of Guernsey.

Climate change has affected plant phenology; increasing temperatures are associated with advancing first flowering dates. The impact on flowering duration, however, has rarely been studied. In this study, we analysed first flowering dates and flowering durations from a 27 year dataset of weekly flower observations on 232 plant species from the island of Guernsey in the English Channel. The aim of this study was to explore variation in trends and relationships between first flowering dates, flowering duration and temperature. We specifically looked for evidence that traits, such as life forms and phylogenetic groups, explained variation in sensitivity of first flowering and flowering duration among species. Overall trends revealed significantly earlier flowering over time, by an average of 5.2 days decade(-1) since 1985. A highly significant shortening of flowering duration was observed by an average of 10 days decade(-1) . Correlations between first flowering, flowering duration and year varied between different species, traits and flowering periods. Significant differences among traits were observed for first flowering and to a lesser degree for flowering duration. Overall, in comparison to first flowering, more species had significant trends in flowering duration. Temperature relationships revealed large differences in strength and direction of response. 55% of the species revealed a significant negative relationship of first flowering dates and temperature. In contrast, only 19% of flowering durations had a significant negative temperature relationship. The advance in first flowering date together with a shortening of flowering duration suggests potentially serious impacts on pollinators, which might pose a major threat to biodiversity, agriculture and horticulture. Human health, in terms of pollen allergies, however, might benefit from a shortening of specific plant pollen seasons.