Deep-learning enabled ultrasound based detection of gallbladder cancer in northern India: a prospective diagnostic study.

Background: Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is highly aggressive. Diagnosis of GBC is challenging as benign gallbladder lesions can have similar imaging features. We aim to develop and validate a deep learning (DL) model for the automatic detection of GBC at abdominal ultrasound (US) and compare its diagnostic performance with that of radiologists. Methods: In this prospective study, a multiscale, second-order pooling-based DL classifier model was trained (training and validation cohorts) using the US data of patients with gallbladder lesions acquired between August 2019 and June 2021 at the Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and research, a tertiary care hospital in North India. The performance of the DL model to detect GBC was evaluated in a temporally independent test cohort (July 2021-September 2022) and was compared with that of two radiologists. Findings: The study included 233 patients in the training set (mean age, 48 ± (2SD) 23 years; 142 women), 59 patients in the validation set (mean age, 51.4 ± 19.2 years; 38 women), and 273 patients in the test set (mean age, 50.4 ± 22.1 years; 177 women). In the test set, the DL model had sensitivity, specificity, and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 92.3% (95% CI, 88.1-95.6), 74.4% (95% CI, 65.3-79.9), and 0.887 (95% CI, 0.844-0.930), respectively for detecting GBC which was comparable to both the radiologists. The DL-based approach showed high sensitivity (89.8-93%) and AUC (0.810-0.890) for detecting GBC in the presence of stones, contracted gallbladders, lesion size <10 mm, and neck lesions, which was comparable to both the radiologists (p = 0.052-0.738 for sensitivity and p = 0.061-0.745 for AUC). The sensitivity for DL-based detection of mural thickening type of GBC was significantly greater than one of the radiologists (87.8% vs. 72.8%, p = 0.012), despite a reduced specificity. Interpretation: The DL-based approach demonstrated diagnostic performance comparable to experienced radiologists in detecting GBC using US. However, multicentre studies are warranted to explore the potential of DL-based diagnosis of GBC fully. Funding: None.

Tall-columnar glandular cells in SurePath™ liquid-based cytology Pap sample: Learning from mimics/pitfalls.

We offer a comprehensive depiction of the cytomorphological characteristics of lobular endocervical glandular hyperplasia (LEGH) as observed in SurePath™ liquid-based cytology (LBC), subsequently confirmed on cone biopsy. Lobular endocervical glandular hyperplasia (LEGH), a precursor to gastric-type adenocarcinoma (GAE) of the endocervix, is rare and reports of it in cervical cytology are scarce. We provide a thorough description of the cytomorphological features of LEGH observed in SurePath™ liquid-based cytology (LBC), later confirmed by cone biopsy. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report documenting cytology of LEGH in LBC of a Pap sample.

A FACS-based novel isolation technique identifies heterogeneous CTCs in oral squamous cell carcinoma.

Purpose: Isolating circulating tumour cells (CTCs) from the blood is challenging due to their low abundance and heterogeneity. Limitations of conventional CTC detection methods highlight the need for improved strategies to detect and isolate CTCs. Currently, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved CellSearch™ and other RUO techniques are not available in India. Therefore, we wanted to develop a flexible CTC detection/isolation technique that addresses the limitation(s) of currently available techniques and is suitable for various downstream applications. Methods: We developed a novel, efficient, user-friendly CTC isolation strategy combining density gradient centrifugation and immuno-magnetic hematogenous cell depletion with fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS)-based positive selection using multiple CTC-specific cell-surface markers. For FACS, a stringent gating strategy was optimised to exclude debris and doublets by side scatter/forward scatter (SSC/FSC) discriminator, remove dead cells by 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining, and eliminate non-specific fluorescence using a "dump" channel. APC-labelled anti-CD45mAB was used to gate remaining hematogenous cells, while multiple epithelial markers (EpCAM, EGFR, and Pan-Cytokeratin) and an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) marker (Vimentin) labelled with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) were used to sort cancer cells. The technique was initially developed by spiking Cal 27 cancer cells into the blood of healthy donors and then validated in 95 biopsy-proven oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) patients. CTCs isolated from patients were reconfirmed by Giemsa staining, immuno-staining, and whole transcriptome amplification (WTA), followed by qRT-PCR. In vitro culture and RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) were also performed to confirm their suitability for various downstream applications. Results: The mean detection efficiency for the Cal 27 tongue cancer cells spiked in the whole blood of healthy donors was 32.82% ± 12.71%. While ~75% of our patients (71/95) had detectable CTCs, the CTC positivity was independent of the TNM staging. The isolated potential cancer cells from OSCC patients were heterogeneous in size. They expressed different CTC-specific markers in various combinations as identified by qRT-PCR after WTA in different patients. Isolated CTCs were also found to be suitable for downstream applications like short-term CTC culture and RNA-Seq. Conclusion: We developed a sensitive, specific, flexible, and affordable CTC detection/isolation technique, which is scalable to larger patient cohorts, provides a snapshot of CTC heterogeneity, isolates live CTCs ready for downstream molecular analysis, and, most importantly, is suitable for developing countries.

A sub-hepatic nodule in a young female: Chase the case.

Sertoli-Leydig cell tumours (SLCTs) are rare, mixed sex-cord stromal tumours composed of varying proportions of both Sertoli and Leydig cells, which account for <0.5% of all ovarian tumours. The cytomorphologic features of SLCTs are not well described in literature. Herein, we describe the cytomorphologic features of an SLCT at an uncommon metastatic site in a young female. Sertoli-Leydig cell tumours (SLCTs) are rare, mixed sex-cord stromal tumours composed of varying proportions of both Sertoli and Leydig cells, which account for <0.5% of all ovarian tumours. The cytomorphologic features of SLCTs are not well described in literature. Herein, we describe the cytomorphologic features of an SLCT at an uncommon metastatic site in a young female.

Mucormycosis: Cytomorphological Spectrum in Fine-Needle Aspiration Cytology.

Background: Mucormycosis is a fungal infection that can affect multiple organs. The role of fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) in its diagnosis is not well documented. Aim: The objective of this study was to describe the detailed cytomorphologic features of mucormycosis on FNAC samples. Materials and Methods: A retrospective analysis of all cases diagnosed as mucormycosis on FNAC between January 2014 and July 2021 was performed for detailed cytomorphological evaluation and correlation to clinical data and microbiological studies wherever available. FNA was computed tomography-guided (n = 38), ultrasonography-guided (n = 31) or palpation-guided (n = 12), and slides were reviewed in two cases. Results: A total of 83 cases of mucormycosis were evaluated. An immunocompromised setting was observed in 48 cases. The most common site of FNA was the lung (n = 57) followed by liver, soft tissue, palate, mediastinum, orbital/ocular region, and lymph node. Isolated renal involvement, a unique feature, was seen in seven cases. The aspirates were necrotic to pus-like or blood-mixed particulate. Broad, nonseptate, foldable, ribbon-like fungal hyphae showing right-angled branching were seen. The tissue reaction was predominantly necro-inflammatory (n = 36), bland necrotic (n = 22), mixed inflammatory (n = 16), suppurative (n = 5), necrotizing granulomatous (n = 3), and granulomatous (n = 1). Immunocompromised patients showed mixed inflammatory responses more frequently. Fungal culture was positive for Rhizopus species in 2/13 cases and molecular testing in two additional cases corresponding to Rhizopus and Syncephalastrum spp. Conclusion: FNA provides quick and conclusive diagnosis of mucormycosis from varied anatomic sites enabling prompt institution of therapy. The tissue response is variable and to some extent dependent on the immune status of the patient.

The WHO system versus the Papanicolaou society of cytopathology system for reporting pancreaticobiliary cytology for risk stratification-which is better?

BACKGROUND: Recently, the World Health Organization (WHO) has proposed a reporting system for pancreaticobiliary cytopathology. We applied this classification for pancreatic lesion samples by fine needle aspiration (FNA) and compared the results to the previous classification of the Papanicolaou Society of Cytopathology (PSC) system for risk stratification. METHODS: The computerized database was searched for all pancreatic endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration (EUS-FNA) and transabdominal ultrasound-guided FNA (TUS-FNA) samples from 2016 to 2020 and cases were reassigned as per the PSC and the WHO diagnostic categories. Cases with follow-up, clinicoradiological, and/or histopathology were included in the study. The risk of malignancy (ROM) was calculated across all diagnostic categories based on clinical data, imaging data, and histopathology wherever available. RESULTS: There were a total of 625 pancreatic FNA. In 230 cases, follow-up information was available which included 116 EUS and 114 TUS-FNA samples. The ROM for PSC categories I-VI was 40%, 19.7%, 28.6%, 57.1%, 94.7%, and 97.9% and for the WHO categories (I-VII), it was 60%, 21.3%, and 35.7%, not representative, not applicable, 94.7% and 94.9%. The overall sensitivity and specificity of PSC was 68.2% and 96.2% when categories V and VI were taken as positive and 78.9% and 93.3% for WHO when categories VI and VII were taken as positive. CONCLUSIONS: Pancreatic FNA samples reported as per the WHO system showed better sensitivity as compared to the PSC system resulting in better risk stratification and consequently better patient management. The overall high specificity and moderate sensitivity reaffirm the utility of FNA in pancreatic lesions.

Cytomorphologic and immunocytochemical characterization of pediatric pleuropulmonary blastoma with a comprehensive review of the literature.

INTRODUCTION: Pleuropulmonary blastoma (PPB) is a rare, aggressive, primary intrathoracic malignancy typically seen in infancy and early childhood. Accurate distinction from congenital cystic lung lesions is crucial due to significant prognostic and therapeutic differences. Cytologic features have rarely been described. Establishing a cytodiagnosis is challenging owing to its rarity, lack of awareness, and multiple morphologic mimics. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a retrospective study conducted over 8 years. The histopathology and cytopathology databases were searched for all pediatric PPB cases. The corresponding cytologic samples were reviewed to identify characteristic features that can help distinguish PPB from its mimics. RESULTS: There was a total of six cases of pediatric PPB reported during the study period. Of these, four (66.7%) presented as intrathoracic, and two (33.3%) as pleural-based masses. Cytology smears showed discretely scattered and perivascular arrangements of round-oval tumor cells with background eosinophilic stromal material. The tumor cells were mildly pleomorphic (n = 3) with round nuclei, fine chromatin, inconspicuous nucleoli, and scanty cytoplasm; however, three cases showed marked anaplasia, and one each showed necrosis and rhabdoid differentiation. On immunocytochemistry (4/6), these were positive for vimentin and desmin and negative for WT1, chromogranin, SALL4, cytokeratin, CD45, and CD99. FISH (1/6) did not show N-Myc amplification. CONCLUSIONS: Knowledge of the characteristic cytomorphological and immunocytochemical features of PPB is vital to establish a prompt and accurate cytodiagnosis with appropriate clinicoradiologic correlation.

Prognostic Value of Differential Expression of Polymerase Eta Gene in Nonresponding Patients With Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma.

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) represents the most common subtype of non-Hodgkins lymphoma. After the introduction of rituximab therapy like rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin vincristine, prednisolone, there has been considerable improvement in the 5-year overall survival in this group of patients, but the nonresponding patients are a challenge to the clinician. The translesion polymerases are unique polymerases that make cells tolerant to DNA damage. Many point mutations are introduced owing to their inherent property of bypassing the points of lesions, preventing the cell from stalling replication. However, the impaired activity of these polymerases can lead to the development of tumors with aggressive clinical course. In this study, the gene expression levels of polymerase eta ( POLE ) were compared in 2 cohorts of patients with DLBCL: the first cohort, patients who had achieved complete response, and the second cohort, patients who were refractory to the treatment or had relapse within 2 years of treatment. There was a significantly upregulated expression in the refractory/relapse cohort compared with the complete remission cohort ( P = 0.0001). The high POLE expression levels correlated significantly with advanced disease stages (III and IV) and poor disease-free survival in the Kaplan-Meier curve. The high POLE expression levels were correlated with poor disease-free survival in nonresponder patients with DLBCL. The results concluded that patients with DLBCL with a high polymerase gene expression may show nonresponsiveness to chemotherapy; hence the functional impact of upregulated expression of POLE in DLBCL requires an in-depth assessment.

Lymph node involvement in an ovarian borderline serous tumor: a rare clinicopathologic presentation with management dilemma.

Borderline serous tumor (BST), earlier known as atypical proliferative serous tumor, is an ovarian neoplasm of low malignant potential. Extraovarian spread in the form of peritoneal implants is common in these tumors; however, lymph node (LN) involvement is infrequent. The prognostic implication of LN involvement in BST is controversial. We present a case of a 25-year-old female presenting with dull-aching abdominal pain in the left iliac fossa for the past 3 years, which was associated with constipation and abdominal bloating. Her serum Cancer antigen 125 (CA125) level was 841.3 units/ml. Pelvic ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging showed a large well-defined, solid-cystic, abdominopelvic mass arising from the right ovary, measuring 21×18×10 cm. The left ovary was also solid-cystic and measured 7×4×3 cm. A provisional clinico-radiologic diagnosis of ovarian malignancy was rendered. The patient underwent bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy with omentectomy and right-sided pelvic and para-aortic lymph node dissection. Histopathology revealed bilateral ovarian BST with involvement of pelvic and para-aortic lymph nodes. This was followed by adjuvant chemotherapy (in view of stage IIIA). She is disease-free at 3 years of regular follow-up. The prognosis and management of BST with LN is not yet fully elucidated. Nevertheless, the finding of such an involvement mandates thorough sampling of the primary ovarian tumor to exclude a possibility of low-grade serous carcinoma with LN metastasis.

Recurrent mutations in Refractory/Relapsed Diffuse Large B cell Lymphoma by targeted gene sequencing.

Introduction-Whole genome sequencing of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma [DLBCL] has identified recurrent mutations involved in pathogenesis and potentially affecting response to therapy. In this pilot study, a targeted gene panel was created to identify mutations associated with relapse/refractoriness. Material and methods- A 14-gene targeted panel was designed to sequence thirteen patients who were in remission and nine eight cases that had relapsed/refractory to treatment. A paired diagnostic biopsy and a relapse biopsy were sequenced to find genes repeatedly altered in relapse. Results- A total of 751 nonsynonymous and truncating mutations were identified. Truncated mutations in NOTCH1, TNFAIP3, and CD58 were associated with poor treatment outcomes. In cases that did not respond to treatment, a high number of mutations were found in the EZH2 gene, followed by the DNA-binding domain of TP53 and MYD88. Termination mutations in the intracellular domain of NOTCH were found in 75% of non-responsive cases. Co-occurrence of loss of function mutations of TNFAIP3 and missense mutations in MYD88 was associated with a non-responsive cohort. Discussion-The study highlights mutations associated with chemotherapeutic response in DLBCL with implications for initial diagnostic biopsy response prediction.

The Asian Thyroid Working Group, from 2017 to 2023.

The Asian Thyroid Working Group was founded in 2017 at the 12th Asia Oceania Thyroid Association (AOTA) Congress in Busan, Korea. This group activity aims to characterize Asian thyroid nodule practice and establish strict diagnostic criteria for thyroid carcinomas, a reporting system for thyroid fine needle aspiration cytology without the aid of gene panel tests, and new clinical guidelines appropriate to conservative Asian thyroid nodule practice based on scientific evidence obtained from Asian patient cohorts. Asian thyroid nodule practice is usually designed for patient-centered clinical practice, which is based on the Hippocratic Oath, "First do not harm patients," and an oriental filial piety "Do not harm one's own body because it is a precious gift from parents," which is remote from defensive medical practice in the West where physicians, including pathologists, suffer from severe malpractice climate. Furthermore, Asian practice emphasizes the importance of resource management in navigating the overdiagnosis of low-risk thyroid carcinomas. This article summarizes the Asian Thyroid Working Group activities in the past 7 years, from 2017 to 2023, highlighting the diversity of thyroid nodule practice between Asia and the West and the background reasons why Asian clinicians and pathologists modified Western systems significantly.

Effusion cytology of metastatic carcinosarcoma.

Objectives: Carcinosarcomas (CSs) are rare gynecological neoplasms seen in elderly females. These are composed of malignant epithelial and mesenchymal components, which appear as adenocarcinoma and high-grade sarcoma. Effusions are encountered uncommonly in CS. Material and Methods: The study focuses on the cytomorphology of 10 cases of metastatic CS in effusions. In 6 years, there were 10 (0.45%) cases of metastatic CS in effusion samples out of 2240 malignant effusion samples. The samples were processed by SurePath™ and centrifuge technique. Both May-Grünwald-Giemsa and Papanicolaou stained smears were evaluated for cytomorphological features, and the findings were correlated with subsequent histopathology. Results: The cells were predominantly arranged in ball-like clusters and discretely. The cells had abundant vacuolated cytoplasm and enlarged pleomorphic nuclei. Occasional cases showed scattered spindle cells. The cases were diagnosed as metastatic adenocarcinoma (7/10) and positive for malignant cells (3/10). None of the cases was diagnosed as CS. The primary of these cases was in the uterus (7/10) and ovary (3/10). Conclusion: The cytological evaluation of such effusion samples rarely demonstrates the classical biphasic pattern of these tumors. Mostly, the carcinomatous component is evident, and the sarcomatous element is inapparent and readily missed.

Childhood pilomatrixoma mimicking malignant small round blue cell tumor with positivity for CD99: Potential pitfall in cytology.

Pilomatrixoma is a relatively rare benign skin appendageal tumor, often presenting in the pediatric age group as a nodular lesion and most commonly involving the head and neck, making it amenable to primary fine needle aspiration (FNA) diagnosis. We report the clinical and histopathological findings of two cases of pilomatrixoma in children, both of which were initially misdiagnosed as small round blue cell tumors due to high cellularity and misinterpretation of the proliferating basaloid cells. Histopathology revealed basal cell proliferation and mitoses indicating that they were progressive, early lesions. The first case showed membranous positivity for CD99 which prompted a diagnosis of Ewing sarcoma. Awareness of the morphological spectrum including positivity for CD99 and careful evaluation of cell block histology could have averted the misdiagnosis. Pilomatrixoma should be included as an important differential diagnosis when faced with primitive-appearing cells on FNA, especially in children with mass lesions in the head and neck region.

Cytological spectrum of testicular malignancies with histopathological correlation: A retrospective analysis.

BACKGROUND: Testicular malignancy is the most common solid organ cancer occurring in young men. The most common testicular malignancy is germ cell tumor. Extragonadal malignancies such as lymphomas are rare. Testicular fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) in cancer is a bit controversial amidst fear of tumor seeding along the needle tract. Nevertheless, its largely safe, cost-effective technique providing a quick and fairly reliable diagnosis. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of testicular malignancies on FNAC over a period of 9 years with cyto-histological correlation wherever possible was carried out. FNAC slides and cell blocks with immunocytochemistry wherever done were retrieved. RESULTS: A total of 74 cases were obtained. The age ranged from 1 year to 65 years. Infiltration by leukemia was the most common malignancy detected in pediatric population, while germ cell tumors were common amongst young adults and middle-aged men. In elderly, metastatic carcinoma, infiltration by lymphoma were identified. On FNAC, 38 cases were of leukemic infiltration, 27 of germ cell tumors (subtyped as mixed germ cell tumors-15 cases, seminoma-11 cases, and yolk sac tumor-1 case) with two cases each of non-Hodgkin lymphoma, Leydig cell tumor, metastatic adenocarcinoma, and one case each of metastatic small cell carcinoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, and malignant neoplasm. Histological correlation was available in 15/74 cases. Only 3 cases were discordant. Seeding of tumor along the needle tract was not seen. CONCLUSION: The current study deciphers the cytological spectrum of testicular malignancies on FNAC and highlights its importance as a reliable modality for a prompt diagnosis of testicular tumors guiding patient management.

Three-dimensional spheroid culture of dental pulp-derived stromal cells enhance their biological and regenerative properties for potential therapeutic applications.

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cell (MSC) spheroids generated in a three-dimensional (3D) culture system serve as a surrogate model that maintain stem cell characteristics since these mimic the in vivo behavior of cells and tissue more closely. Our study involved a detailed characterization of the spheroids generated in ultra-low attachment flasks. The spheroids were evaluated and compared for their morphology, structural integrity, viability, proliferation, biocomponents, stem cell phenotype and differentiation abilities with monolayer culture derived cells (2D culture). The in-vivo therapeutic efficacy of DPSCs derived from 2D and 3D culture was also assessed by transplanting them in an animal model of the critical-sized calvarial defect. DPSCs formed compact and well-organized multicellular spheroids when cultured in ultra-low attachment condition with superior stemness, differentiation, and regenerative abilities than monolayer cells. They maintained lower proliferative state and showed marked difference in the cellular biocomponents such as lipid, amide and nucleic acid between DPSCs from 2D and 3D cultures. The scaffold-free 3D culture efficiently preserves DPSCs intrinsic properties and functionality by maintaining them in the state close to the native tissues. The scaffold free 3D culture methods allow easy collection of a large number of multicellular spheroids of DPSCs and therefore, this can be adopted as a feasible and efficient method of generating robust spheroids for various in-vitro and in-vivo therapeutic applications.

HER2/ERBB2 overexpression in advanced gallbladder carcinoma: comprehensive evaluation by immunocytochemistry and fluorescence in situ hybridisation on fine-needle aspiration cytology samples.

AIMS: Advanced gallbladder carcinoma (AGBC) carries a poor prognosis with dismal survival. There are no data regarding HER2/ERBB2 expression in AGBC. This study evaluated the overexpression of HER2/ERBB2 in cytological aspirates from AGBCs to identify potential patients for whom anti-HER2 targeted therapies can benefit. METHODS: This prospective, case-control study was performed on 50 primary AGBC cases. A detailed cytomorphological assessment, followed by immunocytochemistry (ICC) for HER2/ERBB2, was performed on AGBC cell blocks. A similar number of age-matched and gender-matched resected chronic cholecystitis specimens were included as controls. Fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) was performed in equivocal cases. RESULTS: A total of 10 (20%) cases showed positive (3+), 19 (38%) equivocal (2+) expression and 21 (42%) were negative on HER2/ERBB2 ICC. None of the equivocal cases demonstrated HER2 amplification by FISH. Among the controls, none showed positive (3+) immunoexpression, 23 (46%) demonstrated equivocal expression and 27 (54%) were negative. On statistical analysis, HER2/ERBB2 overexpression was significantly associated with AGBC compared with the controls. Of all the clinical, radiological and cytomorphological parameters, the predominant papillary or acinar arrangements of the tumour cells were significantly associated with HER2/ERBB2 overexpression. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to evaluate the expression of HER2/ERBB2 on cytological aspirates in AGBC using ICC and FISH. HER2/ERBB2 overexpression(20%) was significantly associated with AGBC. Furthermore, predominant papillary or acinar arrangements of tumour cells in the cytological smears were significantly associated with HER2/ERBB2 overexpression. They can serve as potential predictors of HER2/ERBB2 overexpression to select AGBC patients for anti-HER2 targeted therapies.

Neuroblastoma-derived v-myc avian myelocytomatosis viral related oncogene or MYCN gene.

The MYCN gene belongs to the MYC family of transcription factors. Amplification of MYCN, first discovered in neuroblastoma cells, ushered in the era of cancer genomics. The MYCN gene and MYCN protein are extensively studied in the context of neuroblastoma. As demonstrated in transgenic mouse models, MYCN gene shows a restricted spatiotemporal expression predominantly in the neural crest cells which explains the associated neoplasms including neuroblastoma and central nervous system tumours. In neuroblastoma, MYCN amplification is a marker of aggressive tumours with poor prognosis and survival and forms the basis of risk stratification classifications. MYCN dysregulated expression occurs by several mechanisms at the transcriptional, translational and post-translational levels. These include massive gene amplification which occurs in an extrachromosomal location, upregulated transcription and stabilisation of the protein increasing its half-life. MYCN protein, a basic loop-helix-loop leucine zipper transcription factor, has many regions which bind to several proteins foremost of which is MAX forming the MYC:MAX heterodimer. Overall, MYCN controls multiple aspects of cell fate, foremost of which is cellular proliferation besides cell differentiation, apoptosis and cellular metabolism, all of which are the focus of this brief review. In addition to amplification, other mechanisms of MYCN overexpression include activating missense mutations as reported in basal cell carcinoma and Wilms tumour. A better understanding of this molecule will help in the discovery of novel strategies for its indirect targeting to improve the outcomes of patients with neuroblastoma and other MYCN-associated neoplasms.

Fine needle aspiration cytology of metastatic tumours to the thyroid.

BACKGROUND: Metastasis to the thyroid gland from non-thyroid sites is relatively rare and often poses a diagnostic difficulty on fine-needle aspiration cytology, as it often mimics primary thyroid neoplasms. METHODS: All cases of fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) of metastasis to the thyroid gland (2014-2022) were selected from the pathology database. The detailed cytopathological features and histopathology of the cases were studied. RESULTS: There was a total of 18 cases of secondary tumours of the thyroid. All cases had confirmed histopathological data. The most common primary tumours in our study were squamous cell carcinoma of the oesophagus (nine cases) followed by infiltrating ductal carcinoma of the breast (four cases), and one case each of renal cell carcinoma, neuroendocrine carcinoma of the lung, adenocarcinoma stomach and malignant melanoma and squamous cell carcinoma from vallecula. CONCLUSION: Metastasis to thyroid carcinoma is relatively uncommon. A history of malignancy, the presence of malignant cells amid benign thyroid follicular cells, unusual malignancy in a FNAC smear and immunocytochemistry are helpful in diagnosing such cases.

The cytological diagnosis of Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in bronchoalveolar lavage.

Objectives: Immunosuppressed individuals are more prone for opportunistic infections. Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PJP), previously known as Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), is the most common opportunistic infection affecting people living with HIV. As PJP can cause life threatening serious infection to a patient, treatment should not be delayed for these cases. To study clinico-cytomorphological spectrum of PJP. Material and Methods: We analysed the clinical and detailed cytological features of 15 patients with PJP who were diagnosed on examination of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. Results: The mean age of the patients was 38.4 years (range 13 - 61 years). A total of seven patients were HIV positive; five patients were post renal transplant, and one patient was a known case of acute leukaemia on immunosuppression. Presence of foamy alveolar casts (FACs) was the distinctive feature and was noted in 14 out of 15 cases. We detected 14 out of 15 cases accurately in BAL fluid cytology. Conclusion: BAL cytology is one of the important modes of investigations which can detect PJP infection. The history of fever, cough, immunosuppression, bilateral haziness in the radiography of lung and the characteristic alveolar cast indicate the possibility of PJP infection. Cytology can provide early diagnosis and can reduce the mortality of immunocompromised patients.