Exploring hepatic hormone actions using a compilation of gene expression profiles.

BACKGROUND: Microarray analysis is attractive within the field of endocrine research because regulation of gene expression is a key mechanism whereby hormones exert their actions. Knowledge discovery and testing of hypothesis based on information-rich expression profiles promise to accelerate discovery of physiologically relevant hormonal mechanisms of action. However, most studies so-far concentrate on the analysis of actions of single hormones and few examples exist that attempt to use compilation of different hormone-regulated expression profiles to gain insight into how hormone act to regulate tissue physiology. This report illustrates how a meta-analysis of multiple transcript profiles obtained from a single tissue, the liver, can be used to evaluate relevant hypothesis and discover novel mechanisms of hormonal action. We have evaluated the differential effects of Growth Hormone (GH) and estrogen in the regulation of hepatic gender differentiated gene expression as well as the involvement of sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBPs) in the hepatic actions of GH and thyroid hormone. RESULTS: Little similarity exists between liver transcript profiles regulated by 17-alpha-ethinylestradiol and those induced by the continuos infusion of bGH. On the other hand, strong correlations were found between both profiles and the female enriched transcript profile. Therefore, estrogens have feminizing effects in male rat liver which are different from those induced by GH. The similarity between bGH and T3 were limited to a small group of genes, most of which are involved in lipogenesis. An in silico promoter analysis of genes rapidly regulated by thyroid hormone predicted the activation of SREBPs by short-term treatment in vivo. It was further demonstrated that proteolytic processing of SREBP1 in the endoplasmic reticulum might contribute to the rapid actions of T3 on these genes. CONCLUSION: This report illustrates how a meta-analysis of multiple transcript profiles can be used to link knowledge concerning endocrine physiology to hormonally induced changes in gene expression. We conclude that both GH and estrogen are important determinants of gender-related differences in hepatic gene expression. Rapid hepatic thyroid hormone effects affect genes involved in lipogenesis possibly through the induction of SREBP1 proteolytic processing.

Female-predominant expression of fatty acid translocase/CD36 in rat and human liver.

The aim of this study was to identify genes for hepatic fuel metabolism with a gender-differentiated expression and to determine which of these that might be regulated by the female-specific secretion of GH. Effects of gender and continuous infusion of GH to male rats were studied in the liver using cDNA microarrays representing 3200 genes. Sixty-nine transcripts displayed higher expression levels in females, and 177 displayed higher expression in males. The portion of GH-regulated genes was the same (30%) within the two groups of gender-specific genes. The male liver had a higher expression of genes involved in fuel metabolism, indicating that male rats might have a greater capacity for high metabolic turnover, compared with females. Most notable among the female-predominant transcripts was fatty acid translocase/CD36, with 18-fold higher mRNA levels in the female liver and 4-fold higher mRNA levels in males treated with GH, compared with untreated males. This gender-differentiated expression was confirmed at mRNA and protein levels in the rat and at the mRNA level in human livers. Although purely speculative, it is possible that higher levels of fatty acid translocase/CD36 in human female liver might contribute to the sexually dimorphic development of diseases resulting from or characterized by disturbances in lipid metabolism, such as arteriosclerosis, hyperlipidemia, and insulin resistance.

Growth hormone-mediated alteration of fuel metabolism in the aged rat as determined from transcript profiles.

Age-related changes in body composition and serum lipids resemble symptoms of adult-onset growth hormone (GH) deficiency. GH treatment has been shown to normalize these changes in both GH-deficient adult patients and elderly subjects. The aim of this study was to identify GH-responsive genes that might mediate positive effects of GH treatment on fuel metabolism and body composition. cDNA microarrays were used to analyze age- and GH-induced changes in gene expression patterns in male rats. Tissues analyzed were liver, adipose tissue, and skeletal muscle from animals on or off GH treatment. A value of 1.5 was chosen to denote differences (increased or decreased expression) in the level of mRNA expression. In the liver, 7.3% of the expressed genes were affected by age and 6.5% by GH. Similar values for the other tissues were 8.3% and 5.3% (fat), and 7.9% and 9.6% (muscle), respectively. Among the differentially expressed genes, we identified several that encode proteins involved in fuel metabolism. Old rats were shown to have induced expression of genes involved in hepatic glucose oxidation and lipid synthesis, whereas these pathways were reduced in adipose tissue. GH treatment induced the expression of genes for lipid oxidation in liver and for glucose oxidation in skeletal muscle. In adipose tissue, GH reduced the expression of genes involved in lipogenesis even further. Changes in transcript levels were reflected in serum in terms of altered lipid profiles. Serum levels of triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, and total cholesterol were higher in the old animals than in the young and normalized by GH treatment.

Patterns of liver gene expression governed by TRbeta.

Several metabolic processes in the liver are regulated by thyroid hormone (T3). Gene expression profiles of livers from normal and TRbeta-deficient mouse strains should allow the classification of rapid and sustained effects of T3, as well as identification of target genes that are dependent on TRbeta. The immediate and long-term T3 regulation of about 4000 genes in livers from hypo- and hyperthyroid wild-type and TRbeta-deficient mice was analyzed using cDNA microarrays. T3 was found to regulate more than 200 genes, and among these, more than 100 were previously not described. Sixty percent of all these genes show dependence on the TRbeta gene for T3 regulation, indicating that TRalpha1 may have previously unknown functions in the liver. Analysis of the gene expression patterns showed a clear functional distinction between rapid (2 h) actions of T3 and late effects, seen after 5 d of sustained T3 treatment. Many metabolic actions were rapidly executed, whereas effects on mitochondrial function, for example, were seen after the sustained T3 treatment. As compared with wild-type controls, TRbeta-/-mice exhibited elevated expression of some target genes and reduced levels of others, indicating that both direct and indirect gene regulation by TRs in liver is complex and involves both ligand-dependent and -independent actions by the major TR isoforms.