Aberrant characteristics of peripheral blood innate lymphoid cells in COPD, independent of smoking history.

Background: Distinguishing asthma and COPD can pose challenges in clinical practice. Increased group 1 innate lymphoid cells (ILC1s) have been found in the lungs and peripheral blood of COPD patients, while asthma is associated with elevated levels of ILC2s. However, it is unclear whether the inflammatory characteristics of ILC1s and ILC2s differ between COPD and asthma. This study aims to compare peripheral blood ILC subsets and their expression of inflammatory markers in COPD patients, asthma patients and controls. Methods: The study utilised multi-colour flow cytometry to analyse peripheral blood ILC populations in clinically stable COPD patients (n=38), asthma patients (n=37), and smoking (n=19) and non-smoking (n=16) controls. Results: Proportions of peripheral blood inflammatory CD4+ ILC1s were significantly higher in COPD patients than in asthma. Proportions of CD4- ILC1s were increased in COPD patients compared to asthma patients and smoking controls. Frequencies of CD117- ILC2s were significantly reduced in COPD patients compared with asthma patients. In contrast, the fraction of inflammatory CD45RO+ cells within the CD117- ILC2 population was significantly increased. Principal component analyses showed that combined features of the circulating ILC compartment separated COPD patients from asthma patients and both control groups. Conclusion: Our in-depth characterisation of ILC1 and ILC2 populations in peripheral blood revealed significant differences in their phenotypes between COPD and asthma patients and smoking or non-smoking controls. These findings suggest a role for both ILC subsets in COPD disease pathology, independent of smoking history, and may have implications for patient stratification and therapy development.

A new variant in the ZCCHC8 gene: diverse clinical phenotypes and expression in the lung.

Introduction: Pulmonary fibrosis is a severe disease which can be familial. A genetic cause can only be found in ∼40% of families. Searching for shared novel genetic variants may aid the discovery of new genetic causes of disease. Methods: Whole-exome sequencing was performed in 152 unrelated patients with a suspected genetic cause of pulmonary fibrosis from the St Antonius interstitial lung disease biobank. Variants of interest were selected by filtering for novel, potentially deleterious variants that were present in at least three unrelated pulmonary fibrosis patients. Results: The novel c.586G>A p.(E196K) variant in the ZCCHC8 gene was observed in three unrelated patients: two familial patients and one sporadic patient, who was later genealogically linked to one of the families. The variant was identified in nine additional relatives with pulmonary fibrosis and other telomere-related phenotypes, such as pulmonary arterial venous malformations, emphysema, myelodysplastic syndrome, acute myeloid leukaemia and dyskeratosis congenita. One family showed incomplete segregation, with absence of the variant in one pulmonary fibrosis patient who carried a PARN variant. The majority of ZCCHC8 variant carriers showed short telomeres in blood. ZCCHC8 protein was located in different lung cell types, including alveolar type 2 (AT2) pneumocytes, the culprit cells in pulmonary fibrosis. AT2 cells showed telomere shortening and increased DNA damage, which was comparable to patients with sporadic pulmonary fibrosis and those with pulmonary fibrosis carrying a telomere-related gene variant, respectively. Discussion: The ZCCHC8 c.586G>A variant confirms the involvement of ZCCHC8 in pulmonary fibrosis and short-telomere syndromes and underlines the importance of including the ZCCHC8 gene in diagnostic gene panels for these diseases.

Exploring intrinsic variability between cultured nasal and bronchial epithelia in cystic fibrosis.

The nasal and bronchial epithelium are unified parts of the respiratory tract that are affected in the monogenic disorder cystic fibrosis (CF). Recent studies have uncovered that nasal and bronchial tissues exhibit intrinsic variability, including differences in mucociliary cell composition and expression of unique transcriptional regulatory proteins which relate to germ layer origin. In the present study, we explored whether intrinsic differences between nasal and bronchial epithelial cells persist in cell cultures and affect epithelial cell functioning in CF. Comparison of air-liquid interface (ALI) differentiated epithelial cells from subjects with CF revealed distinct mucociliary differentiation states of nasal and bronchial cultures. Moreover, using RNA sequencing we identified cell type-specific signature transcription factors in differentiated nasal and bronchial epithelial cells, some of which were already poised for expression in basal progenitor cells as evidenced by ATAC sequencing. Analysis of differentiated nasal and bronchial epithelial 3D organoids revealed distinct capacities for fluid secretion, which was linked to differences in ciliated cell differentiation. In conclusion, we show that unique phenotypical and functional features of nasal and bronchial epithelial cells persist in cell culture models, which can be further used to investigate the effects of tissue-specific features on upper and lower respiratory disease development in CF.

Type-2 CD8+ T-cell formation relies on interleukin-33 and is linked to asthma exacerbations.

CD4+ T helper 2 (Th2) cells and group 2 innate lymphoid cells are considered the main producers of type-2 cytokines that fuel chronic airway inflammation in allergic asthma. However, CD8+ cytotoxic T (Tc) cells - critical for anti-viral defense - can also produce type-2 cytokines (referred to as 'Tc2' cells). The role of Tc cells in asthma and virus-induced disease exacerbations remains poorly understood, including which micro-environmental signals and cell types promote Tc2 cell formation. Here we show increased circulating Tc2 cell abundance in severe asthma patients, reaching peak levels during exacerbations and likely emerging from canonical IFNγ+ Tc cells through plasticity. Tc2 cell abundance is associated with increased disease burden, higher exacerbations rates and steroid insensitivity. Mouse models of asthma recapitulate the human disease by showing extensive type-2 skewing of lung Tc cells, which is controlled by conventional type-1 dendritic cells and IFNγ. Importantly, we demonstrate that the alarmin interleukin-33 (IL-33) critically promotes type-2 cytokine production by lung Tc cells in experimental allergic airway inflammation. Our data identify Tc cells as major producers of type-2 cytokines in severe asthma and during exacerbations that are remarkably sensitive to alterations in their inflammatory tissue micro-environment, with IL-33 emerging as an important regulator of Tc2 formation.

3D chromatin reprogramming primes human memory TH2 cells for rapid recall and pathogenic dysfunction.

Memory T cells provide long-lasting defense responses through their ability to rapidly reactivate, but how they efficiently "recall" an inflammatory transcriptional program remains unclear. Here, we show that human CD4+ memory T helper 2 (TH2) cells carry a chromatin landscape synergistically reprogrammed at both one-dimensional (1D) and 3D levels to accommodate recall responses, which is absent in naive T cells. In memory TH2 cells, recall genes were epigenetically primed through the maintenance of transcription-permissive chromatin at distal (super)enhancers organized in long-range 3D chromatin hubs. Precise transcriptional control of key recall genes occurred inside dedicated topologically associating domains ("memory TADs"), in which activation-associated promoter-enhancer interactions were preformed and exploited by AP-1 transcription factors to promote rapid transcriptional induction. Resting memory TH2 cells from patients with asthma showed premature activation of primed recall circuits, linking aberrant transcriptional control of recall responses to chronic inflammation. Together, our results implicate stable multiscale reprogramming of chromatin organization as a key mechanism underlying immunological memory and dysfunction in T cells.

PD-L1 checkpoint blockade promotes regulatory T cell activity that underlies therapy resistance.

Despite the clinical success of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB), in certain cancer types, most patients with cancer do not respond well. Furthermore, in patients for whom ICB is initially successful, this is often short-lived because of the development of resistance to ICB. The mechanisms underlying primary or secondary ICB resistance are incompletely understood. Here, we identified preferential activation and enhanced suppressive capacity of regulatory T cells (Treg cells) in αPD-L1 therapy-resistant solid tumor-bearing mice. Treg cell depletion reversed resistance to αPD-L1 with concomitant expansion of effector T cells. Moreover, we found that tumor-infiltrating Treg cells in human patients with skin cancer, and in patients with non-small cell lung cancer, up-regulated a suppressive transcriptional gene program after ICB treatment, which correlated with lack of treatment response. αPD-1/PD-L1-induced PD-1+ Treg cell activation was also seen in peripheral blood of patients with lung cancer and mesothelioma, especially in nonresponders. Together, these data reveal that treatment with αPD-1 and αPD-L1 unleashes the immunosuppressive role of Treg cells, resulting in therapy resistance, suggesting that Treg cell targeting is an important adjunct strategy to enhance therapeutic efficacy.

Multi-source data approach for personalized outcome prediction in lung cancer screening: update from the NELSON trial.

Trials show that low-dose computed tomography (CT) lung cancer screening in long-term (ex-)smokers reduces lung cancer mortality. However, many individuals were exposed to unnecessary diagnostic procedures. This project aims to improve the efficiency of lung cancer screening by identifying high-risk participants, and improving risk discrimination for nodules. This study is an extension of the Dutch-Belgian Randomized Lung Cancer Screening Trial, with a focus on personalized outcome prediction (NELSON-POP). New data will be added on genetics, air pollution, malignancy risk for lung nodules, and CT biomarkers beyond lung nodules (emphysema, coronary calcification, bone density, vertebral height and body composition). The roles of polygenic risk scores and air pollution in screen-detected lung cancer diagnosis and survival will be established. The association between the AI-based nodule malignancy score and lung cancer will be evaluated at baseline and incident screening rounds. The association of chest CT imaging biomarkers with outcomes will be established. Based on these results, multisource prediction models for pre-screening and post-baseline-screening participant selection and nodule management will be developed. The new models will be externally validated. We hypothesize that we can identify 15-20% participants with low-risk of lung cancer or short life expectancy and thus prevent ~140,000 Dutch individuals from being screened unnecessarily. We hypothesize that our models will improve the specificity of nodule management by 10% without loss of sensitivity as compared to assessment of nodule size/growth alone, and reduce unnecessary work-up by 40-50%.

Decoding the genetic and epigenetic basis of asthma.

Asthma is a complex and heterogeneous chronic inflammatory disease of the airways. Alongside environmental factors, asthma susceptibility is strongly influenced by genetics. Given its high prevalence and our incomplete understanding of the mechanisms underlying disease susceptibility, asthma is frequently studied in genome-wide association studies (GWAS), which have identified thousands of genetic variants associated with asthma development. Virtually all these genetic variants reside in non-coding genomic regions, which has obscured the functional impact of asthma-associated variants and their translation into disease-relevant mechanisms. Recent advances in genomics technology and epigenetics now offer methods to link genetic variants to gene regulatory elements embedded within non-coding regions, which have started to unravel the molecular mechanisms underlying the complex (epi)genetics of asthma. Here, we provide an integrated overview of (epi)genetic variants associated with asthma, focusing on efforts to link these disease associations to biological insight into asthma pathophysiology using state-of-the-art genomics methodology. Finally, we provide a perspective as to how decoding the genetic and epigenetic basis of asthma has the potential to transform clinical management of asthma and to predict the risk of asthma development.

Rabies virus uniquely reprograms the transcriptome of human monocyte-derived macrophages.

Macrophages are amongst the first immune cells that encounter rabies virus (RABV) at virus entry sites. Activation of macrophages is essential for the onset of a potent immune response, but insights into the effects of RABV on macrophage activation are scarce. In this study we performed high-throughput sequencing on RNA extracted from macrophages that were exposed to RABV for 48 hours, and compared their transcriptional profiles to that of non-polarized macrophages (M0), and macrophages polarized towards the canonical M1, M2a and M2c phenotypes. Our analysis revealed that RABV-stimulated macrophages show high expression of several M1, M2a and M2c signature genes. Apart from their partial resemblance to these phenotypes, unbiased clustering analysis revealed that RABV induces a unique and distinct polarization program. Closer examination revealed that RABV induced multiple pathways related to the interferon- and antiviral response, which were not induced under other classical polarization strategies. Surprisingly, our data show that RABV induces an activated rather than a fully suppressed macrophage phenotype, triggering virus-induced activation and polarization. This includes multiple genes with known antiviral (e.g. APOBEC3A, IFIT/OAS/TRIM genes), which may play a role in anti-RABV immunity.

Three-dimensional genome organization in immune cell fate and function.

Immune cell development and activation demand the precise and coordinated control of transcriptional programmes. Three-dimensional (3D) organization of the genome has emerged as an important regulator of chromatin state, transcriptional activity and cell identity by facilitating or impeding long-range genomic interactions among regulatory elements and genes. Chromatin folding thus enables cell type-specific and stimulus-specific transcriptional responses to extracellular signals, which are essential for the control of immune cell fate, for inflammatory responses and for generating a diverse repertoire of antigen receptor specificities. Here, we review recent findings connecting 3D genome organization to the control of immune cell differentiation and function, and discuss how alterations in genome folding may lead to immune dysfunction and malignancy.

Immunomodulatory Effects of Stereotactic Body Radiotherapy and Vaccination with Heat-Killed Mycobacterium Obuense (IMM-101) in Patients with Locally Advanced Pancreatic Cancer.

BACKGROUND: Patients with locally advanced pancreatic cancer (LAPC) are treated with chemotherapy. In selected cases, stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) can be added to the regimen. We hypothesized that adding an adjuvant containing a heat-killed mycobacterium (IMM-101) to SBRT may lead to beneficial immuno-modulatory effects, thereby improving survival. This study aims to investigate the safety of adding IMM-101 to SBRT and to investigate the immuno-modulatory effects of the combination treatment in the peripheral blood of LAPC patients. METHODS: LAPC patients were treated with SBRT (40 Gy) and six intradermal vaccinations of one milligram IMM-101. The primary endpoint was an observed toxicity rate of grade 4 or higher. Targeted gene-expression profiling and multicolor flow cytometry were performed for longitudinal immune-monitoring of the peripheral blood. RESULTS: Twenty patients received study treatment. No treatment-related adverse events of grade 4 or higher occurred. SBRT/IMM-101 treatment induced a transient decrease in different lymphocyte subsets and an increase in CD14+CD16-CD11b+HLA-DRlow myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Importantly, treatment significantly increased activated ICOS+, HLA-DR+ and Ki67+PD1+ T and NK cell frequencies. This was not accompanied by increased levels of most inhibitory markers, such as TIM-3 and LAG-3. CONCLUSIONS: Combination therapy with SBRT and a heat-killed mycobacterium vaccine was safe and had an immune-stimulatory effect.

Severe COVID-19-associated variants linked to chemokine receptor gene control in monocytes and macrophages.

Genome-wide association studies have identified 3p21.31 as the main risk locus for severe COVID-19, although underlying mechanisms remain elusive. We perform an epigenomic dissection of 3p21.31, identifying a CTCF-dependent tissue-specific 3D regulatory chromatin hub that controls the activity of several chemokine receptor genes. Risk SNPs colocalize with regulatory elements and are linked to increased expression of CCR1, CCR2 and CCR5 in monocytes and macrophages. As excessive organ infiltration of inflammatory monocytes and macrophages is a hallmark of severe COVID-19, our findings provide a rationale for the genetic association of 3p21.31 variants with elevated risk of hospitalization upon SARS-CoV-2 infection.

CTCF chromatin residence time controls three-dimensional genome organization, gene expression and DNA methylation in pluripotent cells.

The 11 zinc finger (ZF) protein CTCF regulates topologically associating domain formation and transcription through selective binding to thousands of genomic sites. Here, we replaced endogenous CTCF in mouse embryonic stem cells with green-fluorescent-protein-tagged wild-type or mutant proteins lacking individual ZFs to identify additional determinants of CTCF positioning and function. While ZF1 and ZF8-ZF11 are not essential for cell survival, ZF8 deletion strikingly increases the DNA binding off-rate of mutant CTCF, resulting in reduced CTCF chromatin residence time. Loss of ZF8 results in widespread weakening of topologically associating domains, aberrant gene expression and increased genome-wide DNA methylation. Thus, important chromatin-templated processes rely on accurate CTCF chromatin residence time, which we propose depends on local sequence and chromatin context as well as global CTCF protein concentration.

Bacterial lysate add-on therapy to reduce exacerbations in severe asthma: A double-blind placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Asthma exacerbations are frequently induced by respiratory tract infections (RTIs). Bacterial lysates have been described to possess immune-modulatory effects and reduce RTIs as well as asthma symptoms in children. However, whether bacterial lysates have similar effects in adult asthma patients is unknown. AIMS: To reduce asthma exacerbations by add-on bacterial lysate therapy in adults with severe asthma and to characterize the clinical and immune-modulatory effects of this treatment. METHODS: Asthma patients (GINA 4) with ≥2 annual exacerbations in the previous year were included. The intervention regimen consisted of OM-85/placebo for 10 consecutive days per month for 6 months during two winter seasons. Primary end-point was the number of severe asthma exacerbations within 18 months. The study was approved by the national and local ethical review board and registered in the Dutch Trial Registry (NL5752). All participants provided written informed consent. RESULTS: Seventy-five participants were included (38 OM-85; 37 placebo). Exacerbation frequencies were not different between the groups after 18 months (incidence rate ratio 1.07, 95%CI [0.68-1.69], p = 0.77). With the use of OM-85, FEV1% increased by 3.81% (p = 0.04) compared with placebo. Nasopharyngeal swabs taken during RTIs detected a virus less frequently in patients using OM-85 compared to placebo (30.5% vs. 48.0%, p = 0.02). In subjects with type 2 inflammation adherent to the protocol (22 OM-85; 20 placebo), a non-statistically significant decrease in exacerbations in the OM-85 group was observed (IRR = 0.71, 95%CI [0.39-1.26], p = 0.25). Immune-modulatory effects included an increase in several plasma cytokines in the OM-85 group, especially IL-10 and interferons. Peripheral blood T- and B cell subtyping, including regulatory T cells, did not show differences between the groups. CONCLUSION: Although OM-85 may have immune-modulatory effects, it did not reduce asthma exacerbations in this heterogeneous severe adult asthma group. Post hoc analysis showed a potential clinical benefit in patients with type 2 inflammation.

Dynamics of alternative splicing during somatic cell reprogramming reveals functions for RNA-binding proteins CPSF3, hnRNP UL1, and TIA1.

BACKGROUND: Somatic cell reprogramming is the process that allows differentiated cells to revert to a pluripotent state. In contrast to the extensively studied rewiring of epigenetic and transcriptional programs required for reprogramming, the dynamics of post-transcriptional changes and their associated regulatory mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here we study the dynamics of alternative splicing changes occurring during efficient reprogramming of mouse B cells into induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells and compare them to those occurring during reprogramming of mouse embryonic fibroblasts. RESULTS: We observe a significant overlap between alternative splicing changes detected in the two reprogramming systems, which are generally uncoupled from changes in transcriptional levels. Correlation between gene expression of potential regulators and specific clusters of alternative splicing changes enables the identification and subsequent validation of CPSF3 and hnRNP UL1 as facilitators, and TIA1 as repressor of mouse embryonic fibroblasts reprogramming. We further find that these RNA-binding proteins control partially overlapping programs of splicing regulation, involving genes relevant for developmental and morphogenetic processes. CONCLUSIONS: Our results reveal common programs of splicing regulation during reprogramming of different cell types and identify three novel regulators of this process and their targets.

Transcriptional Regulation by (Super)Enhancers: From Discovery to Mechanisms.

Accurate control of gene expression in the right cell at the right moment is of fundamental importance to animal development and homeostasis. At the heart of gene regulation lie the enhancers, a class of gene regulatory elements that ensures precise spatiotemporal activation of gene transcription. Mammalian genomes are littered with enhancers, which are frequently organized in cooperative clusters such as locus control regions and superenhancers. Here, we discuss our current knowledge of enhancer biology, including an overview of the discovery of the various enhancer subsets and the mechanistic models used to explain their gene regulatory function.

Steroid-resistant human inflammatory ILC2s are marked by CD45RO and elevated in type 2 respiratory diseases.

Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) orchestrate protective type 2 immunity and have been implicated in various immune disorders. In the mouse, circulatory inflammatory ILC2s (iILC2s) were identified as a major source of type 2 cytokines. The human equivalent of the iILC2 subset remains unknown. Here, we identify a human inflammatory ILC2 population that resides in inflamed mucosal tissue and is specifically marked by surface CD45RO expression. CD45RO+ ILC2s are derived from resting CD45RA+ ILC2s upon activation by epithelial alarmins such as IL-33 and TSLP, which is tightly linked to STAT5 activation and up-regulation of the IRF4/BATF transcription factors. Transcriptome analysis reveals marked similarities between human CD45RO+ ILC2s and mouse iILC2s. Frequencies of CD45RO+ inflammatory ILC2 are increased in inflamed mucosal tissue and in the circulation of patients with chronic rhinosinusitis or asthma, correlating with disease severity and resistance to corticosteroid therapy. CD45RA-to-CD45RO ILC2 conversion is suppressed by corticosteroids via induction of differentiation toward an immunomodulatory ILC2 phenotype characterized by low type 2 cytokine and high amphiregulin expression. Once converted, however, CD45RO+ ILC2s are resistant to corticosteroids, which is associated with metabolic reprogramming resulting in the activation of detoxification pathways. Our combined data identify CD45RO+ inflammatory ILC2s as a human analog of mouse iILC2s linked to severe type 2 inflammatory disease and therapy resistance.