Pest risk assessment of African Leucinodes species for the European Union.

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Plant Health performed a quantitative risk assessment for the EU of African Leucinodes species (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), which are fruit and shoot borers, especially of eggplant type fruit. The assessment focused on (i) potential pathways for entry, (ii) distribution of infested imports within EU, (iii) climatic conditions favouring establishment, (iv) spread and (v) impact. Options for risk reduction are discussed, but their effectiveness was not quantified. Leucinodes spp. are widely distributed across sub-Saharan Africa but are little studied and they could be much more widespread in Africa than reported. Much African literature erroneously reports them as Leucinodes orbonalis which is restricted to Asia. The import of eggplant type fruit from sub-Saharan Africa consists of special fruit types and caters mostly to niche markets in the EU. The main pathway for entry is fruit of Solanum aethiopicum and exotic varieties of eggplant (S. melongena). CLIMEX modelling was used with two possible thresholds of ecoclimatic index (EI) to assess establishment potential. Climates favouring establishment occur mostly in southern Europe, where, based on human population, 14% of the imported produce is distributed across NUTS2 regions where EI ≥ 30; or where 23% of the produce is distributed where EI ≥ 15. Over the next 5 years, an annual median estimate of ~ 8600 fruits, originating from Africa, and infested with African Leucinodes spp. are expected to enter EU NUTS2 regions where EI ≥ 15 (90% CR ~ 570-52,700); this drops to ~ 5200 (90% CR ~ 350-32,100) in NUTS2 regions where EI ≥ 30. Escape of adult moths occurs mostly from consumer waste; considering uncertainties in pathway transfer, such as adult emergence, mate finding and survival of progeny, the annual median probability of a mated female establishing a founder population in NUTS regions where EI ≥ 15 was estimated to be 0.0078 (90% CR 0.00023-0.12125). This equates to a median estimate of one founder population ~ every 128 years (90% CR approximately one every 8-4280 years). Using an EI ≥ 30, the median number of founder populations establishing in the EU annually is 0.0048 (90% CR 0.0001-0.0739), equating to a median estimate of one founder population approximately every 210 years (90% CR approximately one every 14-7020 years). Under climate change for the period 2040-2059, the percent of infested produce going to suitable areas would be increased to 33% for EI ≥ 15 and to 21% for EI ≥ 30. Accordingly, the waiting time until the next founder population would be reduced to median estimates of 89 years for EI ≥ 15 (90% CR ~ 6-2980 years) and 139 years for EI ≥ 30 (90% CR 9-4655 years). If a founder population were to establish, it is estimated to spread at a rate of 0.65-7.0 km per year after a lag phase of 5-92 years. Leucinodes spp. are estimated to reduce eggplant yield by a median value of 4.5% (90% CR 0.67%-13%) if growers take no specific action, or 0.54% (90% CR between 0.13% and 1.9%) if they do take targeted action, matching previous estimates made during a risk assessment of L. orbonalis from Asia.

Pest risk assessment of Leucinodes orbonalis for the European Union.

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Plant Health performed a quantitative risk assessment of Leucinodes orbonalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), the eggplant fruit and shoot borer, for the EU. The assessment focused on potential pathways for entry, climatic conditions favouring establishment, spread and impact. Options for risk reduction are discussed but effectiveness was not quantified. L. orbonalis is a key pest of eggplant (aubergine/brinjal) in the Indian subcontinent and occurs throughout most of southern Asia with records mostly from India and Bangladesh. The main pathway of entry is fruit of solanaceous plants, primarily exotic varieties of eggplant, Solanum melongena and turkey berry, S. torvum. The trade in both commodities from Asia is small but nevertheless dwarfs the trade in other Solanum fruits from Asia (S. aethiopicum, S. anguivi, S. virginianum, S. aculeatissimum, S. undatum). Other Solanum fruits were therefore not further assessed as potential pathways. The trade in eggplant from Asia consists of special fruit types and caters mostly to niche markets in the EU, while most eggplant consumed in Europe is produced in southern European and northern African countries, where L. orbonalis does not occur. Using expert knowledge elicitation (EKE) and pathway modelling, the Panel estimated that approximately 3-670 infested fruit (90% certainty range, CR) of S. melongena or fruit bunches of S. torvum enter into regions of the EU that are suitable for L. orbonalis establishment each year. Based on CLIMEX modelling, and using two possible thresholds of ecoclimatic index (EI) to indicate uncertainty in establishment potential, climates favouring establishment occur mostly in southern Europe, where, based on human population, approximately 14% of the imported produce is distributed across NUTS2 regions where EI ≥ 30; or 23% of the produce is distributed where EI ≥ 15. Escape of adult moths occurs mostly from consumer waste. By analysing results of different scenarios for the proportion of S. melongena and S. torvum in the trade, and considering uncertainties in the climatic suitability of southern Europe, adult moth emergence in areas suitable for establishment is expected to vary between 84 individuals per year and one individual per 40 years (based on 90% CR in different scenarios). In the baseline scenario, 25% of the solanaceous fruit from Asia is S. torvum, 75% is S. melongena and EI ≥ 30 is required for establishment. After accounting for the chances of mating, host finding and establishment, the probability of a mated female establishing a founder population in the EU is less than 1 in 100,000 to about 1 event per 622 years (90% CR in baseline scenario). The waiting time until the first establishment is then 622 to more than 100,000 years (CR). If such a founder population were established, the moth is estimated to spread at a rate of 0.65-7.0 km per year after a lag phase of 5-92 years. The impact of the insect on the production of eggplant is estimated to be 0.67%-13% (CR) if growers take no specific action against the insect and 0.13%-1.9% if they do take targeted actions. Tomato (S. lycopersicum) and potato (S. tuberosum) are hosts of L. orbonalis, but the insect does not develop to maturity in tomato fruit, and it does not feed on potato tubers under field conditions; hence, damage to potato can only occur due to feeding on shoots. Tomato and potato are not preferred hosts; nevertheless, impact can occur if populations of L. orbonalis are high and preferred hosts are not available. The Panel did not assess this damage due to insufficient information.

Imaging biomarkers in cardiac CT: moving beyond simple coronary anatomical assessment.

Cardiac computed tomography angiography (CCTA) is considered the standard non-invasive tool to rule-out obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD). Moreover, several imaging biomarkers have been developed on cardiac-CT imaging to assess global CAD severity and atherosclerotic burden, including coronary calcium scoring, the segment involvement score, segment stenosis score and the Leaman-score. Myocardial perfusion imaging enables the diagnosis of myocardial ischemia and microvascular damage, and the CT-based fractional flow reserve quantification allows to evaluate non-invasively hemodynamic impact of the coronary stenosis. The texture and density of the epicardial and perivascular adipose tissue, the hypodense plaque burden, the radiomic phenotyping of coronary plaques or the fat radiomic profile are novel CT imaging features emerging as biomarkers of inflammation and plaque instability, which may implement the risk stratification strategies. The ability to perform myocardial tissue characterization by extracellular volume fraction and radiomic features appears promising in predicting arrhythmogenic risk and cardiovascular events. New imaging biomarkers are expanding the potential of cardiac CT for phenotyping the individual profile of CAD involvement and opening new frontiers for the practice of more personalized medicine.

Guidance on protocol development for EFSA generic scientific assessments.

EFSA Strategy 2027 outlines the need for fit-for-purpose protocols for EFSA generic scientific assessments to aid in delivering trustworthy scientific advice. This EFSA Scientific Committee guidance document helps address this need by providing a harmonised and flexible framework for developing protocols for EFSA generic assessments. The guidance replaces the 'Draft framework for protocol development for EFSA's scientific assessments' published in 2020. The two main steps in protocol development are described. The first is problem formulation, which illustrates the objectives of the assessment. Here a new approach to translating the mandated Terms of Reference into scientifically answerable assessment questions and sub-questions is proposed: the 'APRIO' paradigm (Agent, Pathway, Receptor, Intervention and Output). Owing to its cross-cutting nature, this paradigm is considered adaptable and broadly applicable within and across the various EFSA domains and, if applied using the definitions given in this guidance, is expected to help harmonise the problem formulation process and outputs and foster consistency in protocol development. APRIO may also overcome the difficulty of implementing some existing frameworks across the multiple EFSA disciplines, e.g. the PICO/PECO approach (Population, Intervention/Exposure, Comparator, Outcome). Therefore, although not mandatory, APRIO is recommended. The second step in protocol development is the specification of the evidence needs and the methods that will be applied for answering the assessment questions and sub-questions, including uncertainty analysis. Five possible approaches to answering individual (sub-)questions are outlined: using evidence from scientific literature and study reports; using data from databases other than bibliographic; using expert judgement informally collected or elicited via semi-formal or formal expert knowledge elicitation processes; using mathematical/statistical models; and - not covered in this guidance - generating empirical evidence ex novo. The guidance is complemented by a standalone 'template' for EFSA protocols that guides the users step by step through the process of planning an EFSA scientific assessment.

Assessment of the probability of introduction of Thaumatotibia leucotreta into the European Union with import of cut roses.

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Plant Health performed a quantitative pest risk assessment to assess whether the import of cut roses provides a pathway for the introduction of Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) into the EU. The assessment was limited to the entry and establishment steps. A pathway model was used to assess how many T. leucotreta individuals would survive and emerge as adults from commercial or household wastes in an EU NUTS2 region climatically suitable in a specific season. This pathway model for entry consisted of three components: a cut roses distribution model, a T. leucotreta developmental model and a waste model. Four scenarios of timing from initial disposal of the cut roses until waste treatment (3, 7, 14 and 28 days) were considered. The estimated median number of adults escaping per year from imported cut roses in all the climatically suitable NUTS2 regions of the EU varied from 49,867 (90% uncertainty between 5,298 and 234,393) up to 143,689 (90% uncertainty between 21,126 and 401,458) for the 3- and 28-day scenarios. Assuming that, on average, a successful mating will happen for every 435 escaping moths, the estimated median number of T. leucotreta mated females per year from imported cut roses in all the climatically suitable NUTS2 regions of the EU would vary from 115 (90% uncertainty between 12 and 538) up to 330 (90% uncertainty between 49 and 923) for the 3- and 28-day scenarios. Due to the extreme polyphagia of T. leucotreta, host availability will not be a limiting factor for establishment. Climatic suitability assessment, using a physiologically based demographic modelling approach, identified the coastline extending from the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula through the Mediterranean as area suitable for establishment of T. leucotreta. This assessment indicates that cut roses provide a pathway for the introduction of T. leucotreta into the EU.

On the use of antibiotics to control plant pathogenic bacteria: a genetic and genomic perspective.

Despite growing attention, antibiotics (such as streptomycin, oxytetracycline or kasugamycin) are still used worldwide for the control of major bacterial plant diseases. This raises concerns on their potential, yet unknown impact on antibiotic and multidrug resistances and the spread of their genetic determinants among bacterial pathogens. Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) have been identified in plant pathogenic bacteria (PPB), with streptomycin resistance genes being the most commonly reported. Therefore, the contribution of mobile genetic elements (MGEs) to their spread among PPB, as well as their ability to transfer to other bacteria, need to be further explored. The only well-documented example of ARGs vector in PPB, Tn5393 and its highly similar variants (carrying streptomycin resistance genes), is concerning because of its presence outside PPB, in Salmonella enterica and Klebsiella pneumoniae, two major human pathogens. Although its structure among PPB is still relatively simple, in human- and animal-associated bacteria, Tn5393 has evolved into complex associations with other MGEs and ARGs. This review sheds light on ARGs and MGEs associated with PPB, but also investigates the potential role of antibiotic use in resistance selection in plant-associated bacteria.

Commodity risk assessment of ash logs from the US treated with sulfuryl fluoride to prevent the entry of the emerald ash borer Agrilus planipennis.

The European Commission submitted to the EFSA Panel on Plant Health a dossier by USDA proposing to use sulfuryl fluoride on ash log shipments to treat Agrilus planipennis for phytosanitary certification. After collecting additional evidence from USDA APHIS, external experts and literature, the Panel performed a quantitative assessment on the likelihood of pest freedom from A. planipennis, at the point of entry in the EU, of two different commodities fumigated with sulfuryl fluoride: (a) ash logs with bark; and (b) debarked ash logs. An expert judgement is given on the likelihood of pest freedom taking into consideration the measures acting on the pest, including uncertainties associated with the assessment. The likelihood of pest freedom from A. planipennis is lower for ash logs with bark compared with debarked ash logs. With 95% certainty, the Panel concludes that between 9,740 and 10,000 containers of ash logs with bark per 10,000 and between 9,989 and 10,000 containers of debarked ash logs per 10,000 will be free from A. planipennis, when fumigated with sulfuryl fluoride at the specific treatment regime proposed by the USDA APHIS.

Pest risk assessment of Amyelois transitella for the European Union.

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Plant Health performed a pest risk assessment of Amyelois transitella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), the navel orangeworm, for the EU. The quantitative assessment considered two scenarios: (i) current practices and (ii) a requirement for chilled transport. The assessment focused on pathways of introduction, climatic conditions and cultivation of hosts allowing establishment, spread and impact. A. transitella is a common pest of almonds, pistachios and walnuts in California, which is the main source for these nuts imported into the EU. Based on size of the trade and infestation at origin, importation of walnuts and almonds from the USA was identified as the most important pathways for entry of A. transitella. Using expert knowledge elicitation (EKE) and pathway modelling, a median estimate of 2,630 infested nuts is expected to enter the EU each year over the next 5 years (90% certainty range (CR) from 338 to 26,000 infested nuts per year). However, due to estimated small likelihoods of transfer to a host, mating upon transfer and survival of founder populations, the number of populations that establish was estimated to be 0.000698 year-1 (median, 90% CR: 0.0000126-0.0364 year-1). Accordingly, the expected period between founding events is 1,430 years (median, 90% CR: 27.5-79,400 year). The likelihood of entry resulting in establishment is therefore considered very small. However, this estimate has high uncertainty, mainly concerning the processes of transfer of the insect to hosts and the establishment of founder populations by those that successfully transfer. Climate matching and CLIMEX modelling indicate that conditions are most suitable for establishment in the southern EU, especially around the Mediterranean basin. The median rate of natural spread was estimated to be 5.6 km/year (median, 90% CR 0.8-19.3 km/year), after an initial lag period of 3.1 year (mean, 90% CR 1.7-6.2 year) following the establishment of a founder population. If A. transitella did establish, estimated median yield losses in nuts were estimated to be in the order of 1-2% depending on the nut species and production system. A scenario requiring imports of nuts to be transported under chilled conditions was shown to provide potential to further reduce the likelihood of entry.

Proposal of a ranking methodology for plant threats in the EU.

Following a request of the European Commission, EFSA and ANSES, beneficiary of the EFSA tasking grant on horizon scanning for plant pests (GP/EFSA/ALPHA/2017/02), developed a methodology to order by risk non-regulated pests recently identified through the monitoring of media and scientific literature. The ranking methodology proposed at the end of the pilot phase was based on the scoring of pests under evaluation following 16 criteria related to the steps of the pest risk assessment scheme. The multicriteria matrix of scores obtained was then submitted to the multicriteria analysis method PROMETHEE. The pilot methodology was tested on a limited number of pests (14 pests identified during the monitoring activity, and 4 'control' pests whose well-known risk should be reflected either in a positive or negative score), then applied on all non-regulated pests identified through the media and scientific literature monitoring in the first 2 years of the project. After having collected feedback from the targeted final users (EU risk managers), the methodology underwent a few refinements: (i) implementation of the methodology to a set of already assessed reference pests from EFSA opinions, (ii) exclusions of three criteria from the scoring phase, (iii) identification of pests proposed for further action ('positive' pests), using a threshold defined after scoring the reference pests.

Commodity risk assessment of oak logs with bark from the US for the oak wilt pathogen Bretziella fagacearum under an integrated systems approach.

The European Commission submitted to the EFSA Panel on Plant Health a Dossier by USDA proposing a systems approach to mitigate the risk of entry of Bretziella fagacearum to the EU when trading oak logs with bark from the USA. Due to the forthcoming ban of methyl bromide (MB), the Dossier indicates sulfuryl fluoride (SF) as the substitute fumigant for this commodity. After collecting additional evidence from USDA,EU NPPOs, external experts and the published literature, the Panel performed a quantitative assessment on the likelihood of pest freedom for B. fagacearum at the point of entry in the EU, comparing the proposed systems approach with those already implemented by Commission Decision 2005/359/EC. The Panel provided also a non-quantitative assessment for all risk reduction options (RROs) proposed to be undertaken in the EU, from the point of entry to processing at the sawmill. The quantitative assessment until the EU point of entry, based on experts' judgement, indicated that: i) the most effective import option remains the current one with MB (95% certainty that between 9,573 and 10,000 containers per 10,000 would be free of B. fagacearum), followed by that with SF (95% certainty that between 8,639 and 10,000 containers per 10,000 would be free of B. fagacearum) and, last, by the other existing option based on delivering white oak logs in certain periods of the year to certain regions of the EU without fumigation (95% certainty, between 7,803 and 10,000 containers per 10,000). RROs proposed to be undertaken in the EU are expected to further reduce the risk of establishment of B. fagacearum, should these RROs be regulated, correctly implemented and checked by NPPOs. A wood pathway analysis is needed to quantitatively assess the importance of each measure and to optimise regulatory actions and risk management efforts.

Publisher Correction: Science diplomacy for plant health.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Guidance on commodity risk assessment for the evaluation of high risk plants dossiers.

Article 42 of the European Regulation (EU) 2016/2031, on the protective measures against pests of plants, introduces the concept of 'high risk plants, plant products and other objects' that are identified on the basis of a preliminary assessment to be followed by a commodity risk assessment. Following a request of the European Commission, this Guidance was developed to establish the methodology to be followed when performing a commodity risk assessment for high risk commodities (high risk plants, plant products and other objects). The commodity risk assessment performed by EFSA will be based on the information provided by the National Plant Protection Organisations of non-EU countries requesting a lifting of import prohibition of a high risk commodity. Following international standards on pest risk analysis, this Guidance describes a two-step approach for the assessment of pest risk associated with a specified commodity. In the first step, pests, associated with the commodity, that require risk mitigation measures are identified. In the second step, the overall efficacy of proposed risk reduction options for each pest is evaluated. A conclusion on the pest-freedom status of the commodity is achieved. The method requires key uncertainties to be identified.

Update of the Scientific Opinion on the risks to plant health posed by Xylella fastidiosa in the EU territory.

EFSA was asked to update the 2015 EFSA risk assessment on Xylella fastidiosa for the territory of the EU. In particular, EFSA was asked to focus on potential establishment, short- and long-range spread, the length of the asymptomatic period, the impact of X. fastidiosa and an update on risk reduction options. EFSA was asked to take into account the different subspecies and Sequence Types of X. fastidiosa. This was attempted throughout the scientific opinion but several issues with data availability meant that this could only be partially achieved. Models for risk of establishment showed most of the EU territory may be potentially suitable for X. fastidiosa although southern EU is most at risk. Differences in estimated areas of potential establishment were evident among X. fastidiosa subspecies, particularly X. fastidiosa subsp. multiplex which demonstrated areas of potential establishment further north in the EU. The model of establishment could be used to develop targeted surveys by Member States. The asymptomatic period of X. fastidiosa varied significantly for different host and pathogen subspecies combinations, for example from a median of approximately 1 month in ornamental plants and up to 10 months in olive, for pauca. This variable and long asymptomatic period is a considerable limitation to successful detection and control, particularly where surveillance is based on visual inspection. Modelling suggested that local eradication (e.g. within orchards) is possible, providing sampling intensity is sufficient for early detection and effective control measures are implemented swiftly (e.g. within 30 days). Modelling of long-range spread (e.g. regional scale) demonstrated the important role of long-range dispersal and the need to better understand this. Reducing buffer zone width in both containment and eradication scenarios increased the area infected. Intensive surveillance for early detection, and consequent plant removal, of new outbreaks is crucial for both successful eradication and containment at the regional scale, in addition to effective vector control. The assessment of impacts indicated that almond and Citrus spp. were at lower impact on yield compared to olive. Although the lowest impact was estimated for grapevine, and the highest for olive, this was based on several assumptions including that the assessment considered only Philaenus spumarius as a vector. If other xylem-feeding insects act as vectors the impact could be different. Since the Scientific Opinion published in 2015, there are still no risk reduction options that can remove the bacterium from the plant in open field conditions. Short- and long-range spread modelling showed that an early detection and rapid application of phytosanitary measures, consisting among others of plant removal and vector control, are essential to prevent further spread of the pathogen to new areas. Further data collection will allow a reduction in uncertainty and facilitate more tailored and effective control given the intraspecific diversity of X. fastidiosa and wide host range.

Effectiveness of in planta control measures for Xylella fastidiosa.

This opinion updates the information included in the previous EFSA Scientific Opinion concerning the in planta control measures for Xylella fastidiosa, with a systematic review and critical analysis of the potential treatment solutions that have been published against this pest so far. The output of this opinion focuses on the application of chemical or biological treatments on living plants. In vitro studies, hot water treatments, use of resistant varieties and vector control are excluded from the review. The use of antibiotics is not considered due to the risk of antimicrobial resistance development. The use of weakly virulent or avirulent strains of X. fastidiosa is covered in this review, although this organism is an EU quarantine plant pest and its introduction in the EU territory is banned. Experiments were recently conducted to assess the effect of application of zinc, copper, and citric acid biocomplex, of N-acetylcysteine, and of 'diffusible signal factor' (and of its homologs). Their results showed that these control measures were sometimes able to reduce symptoms caused by X. fastidiosa. Recent experiments also showed that several species of endophytic microorganisms, some bacteriophages and inoculation of weakly virulent/avirulent strains of X. fastidiosa could offer some protection against the Pierce's disease. However, based on the reviewed results, the Panel concludes that, although several published experiments show some effects in reducing symptoms development, the tested control measures are not able to completely eliminate X. fastidiosa from diseased plants. The Panel confirms as previously stated that there is currently no control measure available to eliminate the bacteria from a diseased plant in open field conditions.

Report on the methodology applied by EFSA to provide a quantitative assessment of pest-related criteria required to rank candidate priority pests as defined by Regulation (EU) 2016/2031.

In agreement with Article 6(2) of the Regulation (EU) 2016/2031 on protective measures against pests of plants, the European Commission has been tasked by the Council and European Parliament to establish a list of Union quarantine pests which qualify as priority pests. The prioritisation is based on the severity of the economic, social and environmental impact that these pests can cause in the Union territory. The Commission's Joint Research Centre (JRC) is in charge of developing a methodology based on a multi-criteria decision analysis and composite indicators. In this context, EFSA has provided technical and scientific data related to these pests, in particular: (i) the potential host range and distribution of each of these pests in the Union territory at the level of NUTS2 regions; (ii) parameters quantifying the potential consequences of these pests, e.g. crop losses in terms of yield and quality, rate of spread and time to detection. Expert knowledge elicitation methodology has been applied by EFSA in order to provide those parameters in a consistent and transparent manner.

A New Online Resource to Monitor New or Emerging Plant Pests: MEDISYS Media Monitoring and the Case of Xylella fastidiosa.

The European Food Safety Authority has established a horizon scanning exercise for plant pests by automated monitoring of open-source media. The news sources are screened using the publicly accessible MEDISYS (Medical Information System) platform of the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission. Here, we report the example of monitoring for Xylella fastidiosa, a highly polyphagous plant-pathogenic bacterium. Since its first occurrence in Europe, news sources have reported findings and latest developments. Media monitoring-related data can support surveillance or plant pests' management programs by early warning and can help understand the impacts of plant pests and the societal response to new plant health threats.

A New Resource for Research and Risk Analysis: The Updated European Food Safety Authority Database of Xylella spp. Host Plant Species.

Following a series of requests for scientific advice from the European Commission starting in 2013, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) conducted a pest risk assessment and created a comprehensive Xylella fastidiosa host plant database. The last update of the database, published in September 2018, includes information on host plants of both X. fastidiosa and X. taiwanensis, together with details on botanical classification, infection conditions, geographic location, pathogen taxonomy including information on subspecies, strain and sequence type, detection techniques, and tolerant/resistant response of the plant. This updated database of host plants of Xylella spp. reported worldwide provides a key tool for risk management, risk assessment, and research on this generalist bacterial plant pathogen.

Evaluation of a paper by Guarnaccia et al. (2017) on the first report of Phyllosticta citricarpa in Europe.

The Plant Health Panel reviewed the paper by Guarnaccia et al. (2017) and compared their findings with previous predictions on the establishment of Phyllosticta citricarpa. Four species of Phyllosticta were found by Guarnaccia et al. (2017) in Europe. P. citricarpa and P. capitalensis are well-defined species, with P. citricarpa recorded for the first time in Europe, confirming predictions by Magarey et al. (2015) and EFSA (2008, 2014, 2016) that P. citricarpa can establish in some European citrus-growing regions. Two new species P. paracitricarpa and P. paracapitalensis were also described, with P. paracitricarpa (found only in Greece) shown to be pathogenic on sweet orange fruits. Genotyping of the P. citricarpa isolates suggests at least two independent introductions, with the population in Portugal being different from that present in Malta and Italy. P. citricarpa and P. paracitricarpa were isolated only from leaf litter in backyards. However, since P. citricarpa does not infect or colonise dead leaves, the pathogen must have infected the above living leaves in citrus trees nearby. Guarnaccia et al. (2017) considered introduction to be a consequence of P. citricarpa having long been present or of illegal movement of planting material. In the Panel's view, the fruit pathway would be an equally or more likely origin. The authors did not report how surveys for citrus black spot (CBS) disease were carried out, therefore their claim that there was no CBS disease even where the pathogen was present is not supported by the results presented. From previous simulations, the locations where Guarnaccia et al. (2017) found P. citricarpa or P. paracitricarpa were conducive for P. citricarpa establishment, with number of simulated infection events by pycnidiospores comparable to sites of CBS occurrence outside Europe. Preliminary surveys by National Plant Protection Organisations (NPPOs) have not confirmed so far the findings by Guarnaccia et al. (2017) but monitoring is still ongoing.

Updated pest categorisation of Xylella fastidiosa.

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Plant Health Panel updated its pest categorisation of Xylella fastidiosa, previously delivered as part of the pest risk assessment published in 2015. X. fastidiosa is a Gram-negative bacterium, responsible for various plant diseases, including Pierce's disease, phony peach disease, citrus variegated chlorosis, olive quick decline syndrome, almond leaf scorch and various other leaf scorch diseases. The pathogen is endemic in the Americas and is present in Iran. In the EU, it is reported in southern Apulia in Italy, on the island of Corsica and in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in France, as well as in the Autonomous region of Madrid, the province of Alicante and the Balearic Islands in Spain. The reported status is 'transient, under eradication', except for the Balearic Islands, Corsica and southern of Apulia, where the status is 'present with a restricted distribution, under containment'. The pathogen is regulated under Council Directive 2000/29/EC and through emergency measures under http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32015D0789 (as amended http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32017D2352). The pest could enter the EU via host plants for planting and via infectious insect vectors. The host range includes hundreds of host species listed in the EFSA host plant database. In the EU, host plants are widely distributed and climatic conditions are favourable for its establishment. X. fastidiosa can spread by movement of host plants for planting and infectious insect vectors. X. fastidiosa is known to cause severe direct damage to major crops including almonds, citrus, grapevines, olives, stone fruits and also forest trees, landscape and ornamental trees, with high impacts. The criteria assessed by the Panel for consideration as a potential Union quarantine pest are met (the pathogen is present in the EU, but it has a restricted distribution and is under official control). X. fastidiosa is not considered as a regulated non-quarantine pest (RNQP) as the pathogen may spread also via insect vector transmission.