Sex differences in antioxidant defence and the regulation of redox homeostasis in physiology and pathology.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a term that defines a group of unstable compounds derived from exogenous sources or endogenous metabolism. Under physiological conditions, low levels of ROS play a key role in the regulation of signal transduction- or transcription-mediated cellular responses. In contrast, excessive and uncontrolled loading of ROS results in a pathological state known as oxidative stress (OS), a leading contributor to aging and a pivotal factor for the onset and progression of many disorders. Evolution has endowed cells with an antioxidant system involved in stabilizing ROS levels to a specific threshold, maintaining ROS-induced signalling function and limiting negative side effects. In mammals, a great deal of evidence indicates that females defence against ROS is more proficient than males, determining a longer lifespan and lower incidence of most chronic diseases. In this review, we will summarize the most recent sex-related differences in the regulation of redox homeostasis. We will highlight the peculiar aspects of the antioxidant defence in sex-biased diseases whose onset or progression is driven by OS, and we will discuss the molecular, genetic, and evolutionary determinants of female proficiency to cope with ROS.

ent-Beyerane Diterpenes as a Key Platform for the Development of ArnT-Mediated Colistin Resistance Inhibitors.

Colistin is a last-resort antibiotic for the treatment of multidrug resistant Gram-negative bacterial infections. Recently, a natural ent-beyerene diterpene was identified as a promising inhibitor of the enzyme responsible for colistin resistance mediated by lipid A aminoarabinosylation in Gram-negative bacteria, namely, ArnT (undecaprenyl phosphate-alpha-4-amino-4-deoxy-l-arabinose arabinosyl transferase). Here, semisynthetic analogues of hit were designed, synthetized, and tested against colistin-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains including clinical isolates to exploit the versatility of the diterpene scaffold. Microbiological assays coupled with molecular modeling indicated that for a more efficient colistin adjuvant activity, likely resulting from inhibition of the ArnT activity by the selected compounds and therefore from their interaction with the catalytic site of ArnT, an ent-beyerane scaffold is required along with an oxalate-like group at C-18/C-19 or a sugar residue at C-19 to resemble L-Ara4N. The ent-beyerane skeleton is identified for the first time as a privileged scaffold for further cost-effective development of valuable colistin resistance inhibitors.

A novel colistin adjuvant identified by virtual screening for ArnT inhibitors.

BACKGROUND: Colistin is a last-resort treatment option for many MDR Gram-negative bacteria. The covalent addition of l-aminoarabinose to the lipid A moiety of LPS is the main colistin resistance mechanism in the human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. OBJECTIVES: Identification (by in silico screening of a chemical library) of potential inhibitors of ArnT, which catalyses the last committed step of lipid A aminoarabinosylation, and their validation in vitro as colistin adjuvants. METHODS: The available ArnT crystal structure was used for a docking-based virtual screening of an in-house library of natural products. The resulting putative ArnT inhibitors were tested in growth inhibition assays using a reference colistin-resistant P. aeruginosa strain. The most promising compound was further characterized for its range of activity, specificity and cytotoxicity. Additionally, the effect of the compound on lipid A aminoarabinosylation was verified by MS analyses of lipid A. RESULTS: A putative ArnT inhibitor (BBN149) was discovered by molecular docking and demonstrated to specifically potentiate colistin activity in colistin-resistant P. aeruginosa isolates, without relevant effect on colistin-susceptible strains. BBN149 also showed adjuvant activity against colistin-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae and low toxicity to bronchial epithelial cells. Lipid A aminoarabinosylation was reduced in BBN149-treated cells, although only partially. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that in silico screening targeting ArnT can successfully identify inhibitors of colistin resistance and provides a promising lead compound for the development of colistin adjuvants for the treatment of MDR bacterial infections.

Effect of lipid A aminoarabinosylation on Pseudomonas aeruginosa colistin resistance and fitness.

Colistin represents the last-line treatment option against many multidrug-resistant Gram-negative pathogens. Several lines of evidence indicate that aminoarabinosylation of the lipid A moiety of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is an essential step for the development of colistin resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. However, whether it is sufficient to confer resistance in this bacterium remains unclear. The aim of this work was to investigate the specific contribution of lipid A aminoarabinosylation to colistin resistance in P. aeruginosa and evaluate the effect of this resistance mechanism on bacterial fitness. Recombinant strains constitutively expressing the enzymes for lipid A aminoarabinosylation were generated in a small collection of reference and clinical isolates and verified by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), lipid A extraction and mass spectrometry. The effect of aminoarabinosylated lipid A on colistin resistance was found to be strain- and culture condition-dependent. Higher levels of resistance were generally obtained in the presence of divalent cations, which appear to be important for aminoarabinosylation-mediated colistin resistance. High colistin resistance was also observed for most strains in human serum and in artificial sputum medium, which should partly mimic growth conditions during infection. The results of growth, biofilm, cell envelope integrity and Galleria mellonella infection assays indicate that lipid A aminoarabinosylation does not cause relevant fitness costs in P. aeruginosa.

Janus effect of glucocorticoids on differentiation of muscle fibro/adipogenic progenitors.

Muscle resident fibro-adipogenic progenitors (FAPs), support muscle regeneration by releasing cytokines that stimulate the differentiation of myogenic stem cells. However, in non-physiological contexts (myopathies, atrophy, aging) FAPs cause fibrotic and fat infiltrations that impair muscle function. We set out to perform a fluorescence microscopy-based screening to identify compounds that perturb the differentiation trajectories of these multipotent stem cells. From a primary screen of 1,120 FDA/EMA approved drugs, we identified 34 compounds as potential inhibitors of adipogenic differentiation of FAPs isolated from the murine model (mdx) of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). The hit list from this screen was surprisingly enriched with compounds from the glucocorticoid (GCs) chemical class, drugs that are known to promote adipogenesis in vitro and in vivo. To shed light on these data, three GCs identified in our screening efforts were characterized by different approaches. We found that like dexamethasone, budesonide inhibits adipogenesis induced by insulin in sub-confluent FAPs. However, both drugs have a pro-adipogenic impact when the adipogenic mix contains factors that increase the concentration of cAMP. Gene expression analysis demonstrated that treatment with glucocorticoids induces the transcription of Gilz/Tsc22d3, an inhibitor of the adipogenic master regulator PPARγ, only in anti-adipogenic conditions. Additionally, alongside their anti-adipogenic effect, GCs are shown to promote terminal differentiation of satellite cells. Both the anti-adipogenic and pro-myogenic effects are mediated by the glucocorticoid receptor and are not observed in the presence of receptor inhibitors. Steroid administration currently represents the standard treatment for DMD patients, the rationale being based on their anti-inflammatory effects. The findings presented here offer new insights on additional glucocorticoid effects on muscle stem cells that may affect muscle homeostasis and physiology.

Genetic Basis and Physiological Effects of Lipid A Hydroxylation in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1.

Modifications of the lipid A moiety of lipopolysaccharide influence the physicochemical properties of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Some bacteria produce lipid A with a single hydroxylated secondary acyl chain. This hydroxylation is catalyzed by the dioxygenase LpxO, and is important for resistance to cationic antimicrobial peptides (e.g., polymyxins), survival in human blood, and pathogenicity in animal models. The lipid A of the human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa can be hydroxylated in both secondary acyl chains, but the genetic basis and physiological role of these hydroxylations are still unknown. Through the generation of single and double deletion mutants in the lpxO1 and lpxO2 homologs of P. aeruginosa PAO1 and lipid A analysis by mass spectrometry, we demonstrate that both LpxO1 and LpxO2 are responsible for lipid A hydroxylation, likely acting on different secondary acyl chains. Lipid A hydroxylation does not appear to affect in vitro growth, cell wall stability, and resistance to human blood or antibiotics in P. aeruginosa. In contrast, it is required for infectivity in the Galleria mellonella infection model, without relevantly affecting in vivo persistence. Overall, these findings suggest a role for lipid A hydroxylation in P. aeruginosa virulence that could not be directly related to outer membrane integrity.

Different Omega-3 Formulations Yield to Diverse Clinical Response: A Case-Report.

Treatment guidelines recommend omega-3 with Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) content not above 85% in patients with high plasma levels of triglycerides. Since the different up to date formulation of omega-3 available in commerce must be similar to clinical efficacy and safety, herein, we report the case a 52-year-old woman who presented clinical inefficacy using Olevia(®) omega-3 treatment. Clinical evaluation excluded the presence of intestinal or systemic diseases able to reduce the drug absorption. Switching the therapy from (Olevia(®)) to an equivalent omega-3 formulation (Esapent(®)), we documented a decrease in her plasma triglycerides levels. In order to evaluate a possible difference between these formulations we performed a single blind in vitro dissolution test using three pills for each formulation of omega-3 (Olevia(®), Esapent® and another one chosen between the several formulations available in commerce: DOC Generic(®)) that revealed a significant difference (>20%) in the dissolution time of three different omega- 3 commercially available drug formulation.

Matrix metalloproteinases and risk stratification in patients undergoing surgical revascularisation for critical limb ischaemia.

Critical limb ischaemia (CLI) is the most advanced form of peripheral artery disease (PAD) and it is often associated with foot gangrene, which may lead to major amputation of lower limbs, and also with a higher risk of death due to fatal cardiovascular events. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) seem to be involved in atherosclerosis, PAD and CLI. Aim of this study was to evaluate variations in MMP serum levels in patients affected by CLI, before and after lower limb surgical revascularisation through prosthetic or venous bypass. A total of 29 patients (7 females and 22 males, mean age 73·4 years, range 65-83 years) suffering from CLI and submitted to lower extremity bypass (LEB) in our Institution were recruited. Seven patients (group I) underwent LEB using synthetic polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) graft material and 22 patients (group II) underwent LEB using autogenous veins. Moreover, 30 healthy age-sex-matched subjects were also enrolled as controls (group III). We documented significantly higher serum MMPs levels (P < 0·01) in patients with CLI (groups I and II) with respect to control group (group III). Finally, five patients with CLI (17·2%) showed poor outcomes (major amputations or death), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test showed very high levels of MMP-1 and MMP-8. MMP serum levels seem to be able to predict the clinical outcomes of patients with CLI.

Recognizing Severe Adverse Drug Reactions: Two Case Reports After Switching Therapies to the Same Generic Company.

Generic formulations represent a way to reduce the costs of brand compounds when their patent is expired. While, the bio-equivalence in generic drugs is guaranteed, some excipients as well as dyes could be different and this could reduce the drug safety. Herein, we report the development of Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs) in two patients after the switch from brand to generic formulations. We have tested cytochrome P450 enzymes expression as well as drug serum levels. None of these markers were altered. Checking deeply into both patient's medical history, they harbored poly-sensitivity or allergy to pollen and graminacea and used different active ingredients for different health problems coming from the same generic company Almus(®). This company used different dyes and excipients compared to the branded drugs made by distinguished companies. In conclusion, we strongly suggest to both pharmacists and physicians to be careful in giving the advice to change the drug, thinking to reduce health sanitary costs without considering the personal clinical history of each one. Paradoxically this behavior is causing other health issues, bringing to an increase of the overall costs for patients as well as for National Health System.