Expression, purification and characterization of the transcription termination factor Rho from Azospirillum brasilense.

The Transcription Termination factor Rho is a ring-shaped, homohexameric protein that causes transcript termination by interaction with specific sites on nascent mRNAs. The process of transcription termination is essential for proper expression and regulation of bacterial genes. Although Rho has been extensively studied in the model bacteria Escherichia coli (EcRho), the properties of other Rho orthologues in other bacteria are poorly characterized. Here we present the heterologous expression and purification of untagged Rho protein from the diazotrophic environmental bacterium Azospirillum brasilense (AbRho). The AbRho protein was purified to >99% through a simple, reproducible and efficient purification protocol, a two-step chromatography procedure (affinity/gel filtration). By using analytical gel filtration and dynamic light scattering (DLS), we found that AbRho is arranged as an homohexamer as observed in the EcRho orthologue. Secondary structure and enzyme activity of AbRho was also evaluate indicating a properly folded and active protein after purification. Enzymatic assays indicate that AbRho is a RNA-dependent NTPase enzyme.

The Protein-Protein Interaction Network Reveals a Novel Role of the Signal Transduction Protein PII in the Control of c-di-GMP Homeostasis in Azospirillum brasilense.

The PII family comprises a group of widely distributed signal transduction proteins ubiquitous in prokaryotes and in the chloroplasts of plants. PII proteins sense the levels of key metabolites ATP, ADP, and 2-oxoglutarate, which affect the PII protein structure and thereby the ability of PII to interact with a range of target proteins. Here, we performed multiple ligand fishing assays with the PII protein orthologue GlnZ from the plant growth-promoting nitrogen-fixing bacterium Azospirillum brasilense to identify 37 proteins that are likely to be part of the PII protein-protein interaction network. Among the PII targets identified were enzymes related to nitrogen and fatty acid metabolism, signaling, coenzyme synthesis, RNA catabolism, and transcription. Direct binary PII-target complex was confirmed for 15 protein complexes using pulldown assays with recombinant proteins. Untargeted metabolome analysis showed that PII is required for proper homeostasis of important metabolites. Two enzymes involved in c-di-GMP metabolism were among the identified PII targets. A PII-deficient strain showed reduced c-di-GMP levels and altered aerotaxis and flocculation behavior. These data support that PII acts as a major metabolic hub controlling important enzymes and the homeostasis of key metabolites such as c-di-GMP in response to the prevailing nutritional status.IMPORTANCE The PII proteins sense and integrate important metabolic signals which reflect the cellular nutrition and energy status. Such extraordinary ability was capitalized by nature in such a way that the various PII proteins regulate different facets of metabolism by controlling the activity of a range of target proteins by protein-protein interactions. Here, we determined the PII protein interaction network in the plant growth-promoting nitrogen-fixing bacterium Azospirillum brasilense The interactome data along with metabolome analysis suggest that PII functions as a master metabolic regulator hub. We provide evidence that PII proteins act to regulate c-di-GMP levels in vivo and cell motility and adherence behaviors.

MAW point mutation impairs H. Seropedicae RecA ATP hydrolysis and DNA repair without inducing large conformational changes in its structure.

RecA is a multifunctional protein that plays a central role in DNA repair in bacteria. The structural Make ATP Work motif (MAW) is proposed to control the ATPase activity of RecA. In the present work, we report the biochemical activity and structural effects of the L53Q mutation at the MAW motif of the RecA protein from H. seropedicae (HsRecA L53Q). In vitro studies showed that HsRecA L53Q can bind ADP, ATP, and ssDNA, as does wild-type RecA. However, the ATPase and DNA-strand exchange activities were completely lost. In vivo studies showed that the expression of HsRecA L53Q in E. coli recA1 does not change its phenotype when cells were challenged with MMS and UV. Molecular dynamics simulations showed the L53Q point mutation did not cause large conformational changes in the HsRecA structure. However, there is a difference on dynamical cross-correlation movements of the residues involved in contacts within the ATP binding site and regions that hold the DNA binding sites. Additionally, a new hydrogen bond, formed between Q53 and T49, was hypothesized to allow an independent motion of the MAW motif from the hydrophobic core, what could explain the observed loss of activity of HsRecA L53Q.

PHB Biosynthesis Counteracts Redox Stress in Herbaspirillum seropedicae.

The ability of bacteria to produce polyhydroxyalkanoates such as poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) enables provision of a carbon storage molecule that can be mobilized under demanding physiological conditions. However, the precise function of PHB in cellular metabolism has not been clearly defined. In order to determine the impact of PHB production on global physiology, we have characterized the properties of a ΔphaC1 mutant strain of the diazotrophic bacterium Herbaspirillum seropedicae. The absence of PHB in the mutant strain not only perturbs redox balance and increases oxidative stress, but also influences the activity of the redox-sensing Fnr transcription regulators, resulting in significant changes in expression of the cytochrome c-branch of the electron transport chain. The synthesis of PHB is itself dependent on the Fnr1 and Fnr3 proteins resulting in a cyclic dependency that couples synthesis of PHB with redox regulation. Transcriptional profiling of the ΔphaC1 mutant reveals that the loss of PHB synthesis affects the expression of many genes, including approximately 30% of the Fnr regulon.

Comparative Genomics of Sibling Species of Fonsecaea Associated with Human Chromoblastomycosis.

Fonsecaea and Cladophialophora are genera of black yeast-like fungi harboring agents of a mutilating implantation disease in humans, along with strictly environmental species. The current hypothesis suggests that those species reside in somewhat adverse microhabitats, and pathogenic siblings share virulence factors enabling survival in mammal tissue after coincidental inoculation driven by pathogenic adaptation. A comparative genomic analysis of environmental and pathogenic siblings of Fonsecaea and Cladophialophora was undertaken, including de novo assembly of F. erecta from plant material. The genome size of Fonsecaea species varied between 33.39 and 35.23 Mb, and the core genomes of those species comprises almost 70% of the genes. Expansions of protein domains such as glyoxalases and peptidases suggested ability for pathogenicity in clinical agents, while the use of nitrogen and degradation of phenolic compounds was enriched in environmental species. The similarity of carbohydrate-active vs. protein-degrading enzymes associated with the occurrence of virulence factors suggested a general tolerance to extreme conditions, which might explain the opportunistic tendency of Fonsecaea sibling species. Virulence was tested in the Galleria mellonella model and immunological assays were performed in order to support this hypothesis. Larvae infected by environmental F. erecta had a lower survival. Fungal macrophage murine co-culture showed that F. erecta induced high levels of TNF-α contributing to macrophage activation that could increase the ability to control intracellular fungal growth although hyphal death were not observed, suggesting a higher level of extremotolerance of environmental species.

GFinisher: a new strategy to refine and finish bacterial genome assemblies.

Despite the development in DNA sequencing technology, improving the number and the length of reads, the process of reconstruction of complete genome sequences, the so called genome assembly, is still complex. Only 13% of the prokaryotic genome sequencing projects have been completed. Draft genome sequences deposited in public databases are fragmented in contigs and may lack the full gene complement. The aim of the present work is to identify assembly errors and improve the assembly process of bacterial genomes. The biological patterns observed in genomic sequences and the application of a priori information can allow the identification of misassembled regions, and the reorganization and improvement of the overall de novo genome assembly. GFinisher starts generating a Fuzzy GC skew graphs for each contig in an assembly and follows breaking down the contigs in critical points in order to reassemble and close them using jFGap. This has been successfully applied to dataset from 96 genome assemblies, decreasing the number of contigs by up to 86%. GFinisher can easily optimize assemblies of prokaryotic draft genomes and can be used to improve the assembly programs based on nucleotide sequence patterns in the genome. The software and source code are available at http://gfinisher.sourceforge.net/.

Structural and Functional Studies of H. seropedicae RecA Protein - Insights into the Polymerization of RecA Protein as Nucleoprotein Filament.

The bacterial RecA protein plays a role in the complex system of DNA damage repair. Here, we report the functional and structural characterization of the Herbaspirillum seropedicae RecA protein (HsRecA). HsRecA protein is more efficient at displacing SSB protein from ssDNA than Escherichia coli RecA protein. HsRecA also promotes DNA strand exchange more efficiently. The three dimensional structure of HsRecA-ADP/ATP complex has been solved to 1.7 Å resolution. HsRecA protein contains a small N-terminal domain, a central core ATPase domain and a large C-terminal domain, that are similar to homologous bacterial RecA proteins. Comparative structural analysis showed that the N-terminal polymerization motif of archaeal and eukaryotic RecA family proteins are also present in bacterial RecAs. Reconstruction of electrostatic potential from the hexameric structure of HsRecA-ADP/ATP revealed a high positive charge along the inner side, where ssDNA is bound inside the filament. The properties of this surface may explain the greater capacity of HsRecA protein to bind ssDNA, forming a contiguous nucleoprotein filament, displace SSB and promote DNA exchange relative to EcRecA. Our functional and structural analyses provide insight into the molecular mechanisms of polymerization of bacterial RecA as a helical nucleoprotein filament.

Backup Expression of the PhaP2 Phasin Compensates for phaP1 Deletion in Herbaspirillum seropedicae, Maintaining Fitness and PHB Accumulation.

Phasins are important proteins controlling poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) granules formation, their number into the cell and stability. The genome sequencing of the endophytic and diazotrophic bacterium Herbaspirillum seropedicae SmR1 revealed two homologous phasin genes. To verify the role of the phasins on PHB accumulation in the parental strain H. seropedicae SmR1, isogenic strains defective in the expression of phaP1, phaP2 or both genes were obtained by gene deletion and characterized in this work. Despite of the high sequence similarity between PhaP1 and PhaP2, PhaP1 is the major phasin in H. seropedicae, since its deletion reduced PHB accumulation by ≈50% in comparison to the parental and ΔphaP2. Upon deletion of phaP1, the expression of phaP2 was sixfold enhanced in the ΔphaP1 strain. The responsive backup expression of phaP2 partially rescued the ΔphaP1 mutant, maintaining about 50% of the parental PHB level. The double mutant ΔphaP1.2 did not accumulate PHB in any growth stage and showed a severe reduction of growth when glucose was the carbon source, a clear demonstration of negative impact in the fitness. The co-occurrence of phaP1 and phaP2 homologous in bacteria relatives of H. seropedicae, including other endophytes, indicates that the mechanism of phasin compensation by phaP2 expression may be operating in other organisms, showing that PHB metabolism is a key factor to adaptation and efficiency of endophytic bacteria.

Complete Genome Sequence of Herbaspirillum hiltneri N3 (DSM 17495), Isolated from Surface-Sterilized Wheat Roots.

We report the complete genome sequence of Herbaspirillum hiltneri N3 (DSM 17495), a member of the genus Herbaspirillum of the Betaproteobacteria. The genome is contained in a single chromosome, and analysis revealed that N3 lacks the whole nitrogen fixation (nif) gene cluster, confirming its inability to fix nitrogen.

Robust biological nitrogen fixation in a model grass-bacterial association.

Nitrogen-fixing rhizobacteria can promote plant growth; however, it is controversial whether biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) from associative interaction contributes to growth promotion. The roots of Setaria viridis, a model C4 grass, were effectively colonized by bacterial inoculants resulting in a significant enhancement of growth. Nitrogen-13 tracer studies provided direct evidence for tracer uptake by the host plant and incorporation into protein. Indeed, plants showed robust growth under nitrogen-limiting conditions when inoculated with an ammonium-excreting strain of Azospirillum brasilense. (11)C-labeling experiments showed that patterns in central carbon metabolism and resource allocation exhibited by nitrogen-starved plants were largely reversed by bacterial inoculation, such that they resembled plants grown under nitrogen-sufficient conditions. Adoption of S. viridis as a model should promote research into the mechanisms of associative nitrogen fixation with the ultimate goal of greater adoption of BNF for sustainable crop production.

FGAP: an automated gap closing tool.

BACKGROUND: The fast reduction of prices of DNA sequencing allowed rapid accumulation of genome data. However, the process of obtaining complete genome sequences is still very time consuming and labor demanding. In addition, data produced from various sequencing technologies or alternative assemblies remain underexplored to improve assembly of incomplete genome sequences. FINDINGS: We have developed FGAP, a tool for closing gaps of draft genome sequences that takes advantage of different datasets. FGAP uses BLAST to align multiple contigs against a draft genome assembly aiming to find sequences that overlap gaps. The algorithm selects the best sequence to fill and eliminate the gap. CONCLUSIONS: FGAP reduced the number of gaps by 78% in an E. coli draft genome assembly using two different sequencing technologies, Illumina and 454. Using PacBio long reads, 98% of gaps were solved. In human chromosome 14 assemblies, FGAP reduced the number of gaps by 35%. All the inserted sequences were validated with a reference genome using QUAST. The source code and a web tool are available at http://www.bioinfo.ufpr.br/fgap/.

Identification of proteins associated with polyhydroxybutyrate granules from Herbaspirillum seropedicae SmR1--old partners, new players.

Herbaspirillum seropedicae is a diazotrophic ß-Proteobacterium found associated with important agricultural crops. This bacterium produces polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), an aliphatic polyester, as a carbon storage and/or source of reducing equivalents. The PHB polymer is stored as intracellular insoluble granules coated mainly with proteins, some of which are directly involved in PHB synthesis, degradation and granule biogenesis. In this work, we have extracted the PHB granules from H. seropedicae and identified their associated-proteins by mass spectrometry. This analysis allowed us to identify the main phasin (PhaP1) coating the PHB granule as well as the PHB synthase (PhbC1) responsible for its synthesis. A phbC1 mutant is impaired in PHB synthesis, confirming its role in H. seropedicae. On the other hand, a phaP1 mutant produces PHB granules but coated mainly with the secondary phasin (PhaP2). Furthermore, some novel proteins not previously described to be involved with PHB metabolism were also identified, bringing new possibilities to PHB function in H. seropedicae.

The Herbaspirillum seropedicae SmR1 Fnr orthologs controls the cytochrome composition of the electron transport chain.

The transcriptional regulatory protein Fnr, acts as an intracellular redox sensor regulating a wide range of genes in response to changes in oxygen levels. Genome sequencing of Herbaspirillum seropedicae SmR1 revealed the presence of three fnr-like genes. In this study we have constructed single, double and triple fnr deletion mutant strains of H. seropedicae. Transcriptional profiling in combination with expression data from reporter fusions, together with spectroscopic analysis, demonstrates that the Fnr1 and Fnr3 proteins not only regulate expression of the cbb3-type respiratory oxidase, but also control the cytochrome content and other component complexes required for the cytochrome c-based electron transport pathway. Accordingly, in the absence of the three Fnr paralogs, growth is restricted at low oxygen tensions and nitrogenase activity is impaired. Our results suggest that the H. seropedicae Fnr proteins are major players in regulating the composition of the electron transport chain in response to prevailing oxygen concentrations.

Identification and characterization of PhbF: a DNA binding protein with regulatory role in the PHB metabolism of Herbaspirillum seropedicae SmR1.

BACKGROUND: Herbaspirillum seropedicae SmR1 is a nitrogen fixing endophyte associated with important agricultural crops. It produces polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) which is stored intracellularly as granules. However, PHB metabolism and regulatory control is not yet well studied in this organism. RESULTS: In this work we describe the characterization of the PhbF protein from H. seropedicae SmR1 which was purified and characterized after expression in E. coli. The purified PhbF protein was able to bind to eleven putative promoters of genes involved in PHB metabolism in H. seropedicae SmR1. In silico analyses indicated a probable DNA-binding sequence which was shown to be protected in DNA footprinting assays using purified PhbF. Analyses using lacZ fusions showed that PhbF can act as a repressor protein controlling the expression of PHB metabolism-related genes. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that H. seropedicae SmR1 PhbF regulates expression of phb-related genes by acting as a transcriptional repressor. The knowledge of the PHB metabolism of this plant-associated bacterium may contribute to the understanding of the plant-colonizing process and the organism's resistance and survival in planta.

Role of PII proteins in nitrogen fixation control of Herbaspirillum seropedicae strain SmR1.

BACKGROUND: The PII protein family comprises homotrimeric proteins which act as transducers of the cellular nitrogen and carbon status in prokaryotes and plants. In Herbaspirillum seropedicae, two PII-like proteins (GlnB and GlnK), encoded by the genes glnB and glnK, were identified. The glnB gene is monocistronic and its expression is constitutive, while glnK is located in the nlmAglnKamtB operon and is expressed under nitrogen-limiting conditions. RESULTS: In order to determine the involvement of the H. seropedicae glnB and glnK gene products in nitrogen fixation, a series of mutant strains were constructed and characterized. The glnK- mutants were deficient in nitrogen fixation and they were complemented by plasmids expressing the GlnK protein or an N-truncated form of NifA. The nitrogenase post-translational control by ammonium was studied and the results showed that the glnK mutant is partially defective in nitrogenase inactivation upon addition of ammonium while the glnB mutant has a wild-type phenotype. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that GlnK is mainly responsible for NifA activity regulation and ammonium-dependent post-translational regulation of nitrogenase in H. seropedicae.

Proteomic analysis of Herbaspirillum seropedicae reveals ammonium-induced AmtB-dependent membrane sequestration of PII proteins.

This study was aimed at describing the spectrum and dynamics of proteins associated with the membrane in the nitrogen-fixing bacterium Herbaspirillum seropedicae according to the availability of fixed nitrogen. Using two-dimensional electrophoresis we identified 79 protein spots representing 45 different proteins in the membrane fraction of H. seropedicae. Quantitative analysis of gel images of membrane extracts indicated two spots with increased levels when cells were grown under nitrogen limitation in comparison with nitrogen sufficiency; these spots were identified as the GlnK protein and as a conserved noncytoplasmic protein of unknown function which was encoded in an operon together with GlnK and AmtB. Comparison of gel images of membrane extracts from cells grown under nitrogen limitation or under the same regime but collected after an ammonium shock revealed two proteins, GlnB and GlnK, with increased levels after the shock. The P(II) proteins were not present in the membrane fraction of an amtB mutant. The results reported here suggest that changes in the cellular localization of P(II) might play a role in the control of nitrogen metabolism in H. seropedicae.

In vitro interactions between the PII proteins and the nitrogenase regulatory enzymes dinitrogenase reductase ADP-ribosyltransferase (DraT) and dinitrogenase reductase-activating glycohydrolase (DraG) in Azospirillum brasilense.

The activity of the nitrogenase enzyme in the diazotroph Azospirillum brasilense is reversibly inactivated by ammonium through ADP-ribosylation of the nitrogenase NifH subunit. This process is catalyzed by DraT and is reversed by DraG, and the activities of both enzymes are regulated according to the levels of ammonium through direct interactions with the P(II) proteins GlnB and GlnZ. We have previously shown that DraG interacts with GlnZ both in vivo and in vitro and that DraT interacts with GlnB in vivo. We have now characterized the influence of P(II) uridylylation status and the P(II) effectors (ATP, ADP, and 2-oxoglutarate) on the in vitro formation of DraT-GlnB and DraG-GlnZ complexes. We observed that both interactions are maximized when P(II) proteins are de-uridylylated and when ADP is present. The DraT-GlnB complex formed in vivo was purified to homogeneity in the presence of ADP. The stoichiometry of the DraT-GlnB complex was determined by three independent approaches, all of which indicated a 1:1 stoichiometry (DraT monomer:GlnB trimer). Our results suggest that the intracellular fluctuation of the P(II) ligands ATP, ADP, and 2-oxoglutarate play a key role in the post-translational regulation of nitrogenase activity.

Interactions between PII proteins and the nitrogenase regulatory enzymes DraT and DraG in Azospirillum brasilense.

In Azospirillum brasilense ADP-ribosylation of dinitrogenase reductase (NifH) occurs in response to addition of ammonium to the extracellular medium and is mediated by dinitrogenase reductase ADP-ribosyltransferase (DraT) and reversed by dinitrogenase reductase glycohydrolase (DraG). The P(II) proteins GlnB and GlnZ have been implicated in regulation of DraT and DraG by an as yet unknown mechanism. Using pull-down experiments with His-tagged versions of DraT and DraG we have now shown that DraT binds to GlnB, but only to the deuridylylated form, and that DraG binds to both the uridylylated and deuridylylated forms of GlnZ. The demonstration of these specific protein complexes, together with our recent report of the ability of deuridylylated GlnZ to be sequestered to the cell membrane by the ammonia channel protein AmtB, offers new insights into the control of NifH ADP-ribosylation.

ADP-ribosylation of dinitrogenase reductase in Azospirillum brasilense is regulated by AmtB-dependent membrane sequestration of DraG.

Nitrogen fixation in some diazotrophic bacteria is regulated by mono-ADP-ribosylation of dinitrogenase reductase (NifH) that occurs in response to addition of ammonium to the extracellular medium. This process is mediated by dinitrogenase reductase ADP-ribosyltransferase (DraT) and reversed by dinitrogenase reductase glycohydrolase (DraG), but the means by which the activities of these enzymes are regulated are unknown. We have investigated the role of the P(II) proteins (GlnB and GlnZ), the ammonia channel protein AmtB and the cellular localization of DraG in the regulation of the NifH-modification process in Azospirillum brasilense. GlnB, GlnZ and DraG were all membrane-associated after an ammonium shock, and both this membrane sequestration and ADP-ribosylation of NifH were defective in an amtB mutant. We now propose a model in which membrane association of DraG after an ammonium shock creates a physical separation from its cytoplasmic substrate NifH thereby inhibiting ADP-ribosyl-removal. Our observations identify a novel role for an ammonia channel (Amt) protein in the regulation of bacterial nitrogen metabolism by mediating membrane sequestration of a protein other than a P(II) family member. They also suggest a model for control of ADP-ribosylation that is likely to be applicable to all diazotrophs that exhibit such post-translational regulation of nitrogenase.

Characterization of the orf1glnKamtB operon of Herbaspirillum seropedicae.

Herbaspirillum seropedicae is an endophytic nitrogen-fixing bacterium that colonizes economically important grasses. In this organism, the amtB gene is co-transcribed with two other genes: glnK that codes for a PII-like protein and orf1 that codes for a probable periplasmatic protein of unknown function. The expression of the orf1glnKamtB operon is increased under nitrogen-limiting conditions and is dependent on NtrC. An amtB mutant failed to transport methylammonium. Post-translational control of nitrogenase was also partially impaired in this mutant, since a complete switch-off of nitrogenase after ammonium addition was not observed. This result suggests that the AmtB protein is involved in the signaling pathway for the reversible inactivation of nitrogenase in H. seropedicae.