Effects of pectin methyl-esterification on intestinal microbiota and its immunomodulatory properties in naive mice.

Pectins are dietary fibers that are attributed with several beneficial immunomodulatory effects. Depending on the degree of esterification (DE), pectins can be classified as high methoxyl pectin (HMP) or low methoxyl pectin (LMP). The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of pectin methyl-esterification on intestinal microbiota and its immunomodulatory properties in naive mice. Supplementation of the diet with LMP or HMP induced changes in the composition of the intestinal microbiota in mice toward Bacteroides, which was mainly promoted by HMP. Metabolome analysis of stool samples from pectin-fed mice showed a different effect of the two types of pectin on the levels of short-chain fatty acids and bile acids, which was consistent with highly efficient in vivo fermentation of LMP. Analysis of serum antibody levels showed a significant increase in IgG and IgA levels by both pectins, while FACS analysis revealed a decrease of infiltrating inflammatory cells in the intestinal lamina propria by HMP. Our study revealed that the structural properties of the investigated pectins determine fermentability, effects on microbial composition, metabolite production, and modulation of immune responses. Consumption of HMP preferentially altered the gut microbiota and suppressed pro-inflammatory immune responses, suggesting a beneficial role in inflammatory diseases.

Eosinophil-derived IL-4 is necessary to establish the inflammatory structure in innate inflammation.

Pathogen-induced inflammation comprises pro- and anti-inflammatory processes, which ensure pathogen removal and containment of the proinflammatory activities. Here, we aimed to identify the development of inflammatory microenvironments and their maintenance throughout the course of a toll-like receptor 2-mediated paw inflammation. Within 24 h after pathogen-injection, the immune cells were organized in three zones, which comprised a pathogen-containing "core-region", a bordering proinflammatory (PI)-region and an outer anti-inflammatory (AI)-region. Eosinophils were present in all three inflammatory regions and adapted their cytokine profile according to their localization. Eosinophil depletion reduced IL-4 levels and increased edema formation as well as mechanical and thermal hypersensitivities during resolution of inflammation. Also, in the absence of eosinophils PI- and AI-regions could not be determined anymore, neutrophil numbers increased, and efferocytosis as well as M2-macrophage polarization were reduced. IL-4 administration restored in eosinophil-depleted mice PI- and AI-regions, normalized neutrophil numbers, efferocytosis, M2-macrophage polarization as well as resolution of zymosan-induced hypersensitivity. In conclusion, IL-4-expressing eosinophils support the resolution of inflammation by enabling the development of an anti-inflammatory framework, which encloses proinflammatory regions.

The Dietary Fiber Pectin: Health Benefits and Potential for the Treatment of Allergies by Modulation of Gut Microbiota.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The incidence of allergies is increasing and has been associated with several environmental factors including westernized diets. Changes in environment and nutrition can result in dysbiosis of the skin, gut, and lung microbiota altering the production of microbial metabolites, which may in turn generate epigenetic modifications. The present review addresses studies on pectin-mediated effects on allergies, including the immune modulating mechanisms by bacterial metabolites. RECENT FINDINGS: Recently, microbiota have gained attention as target for allergy intervention, especially with prebiotics, that are able to stimulate the growth and activity of certain microorganisms. Dietary fibers, which cannot be digested in the gastrointestinal tract, can alter the gut microbiota and lead to increased local and systemic concentrations of gut microbiota-derived short chain fatty acids (SCFAs). These can promote the generation of peripheral regulatory T cells (Treg) by epigenetic modulation and suppress the inflammatory function of dendritic cells (DCs) by transcriptional modulation. The dietary fiber pectin (a plant-derived polysaccharide commonly used as gelling agent and dietary supplement) can alter the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes in gut and lung microbiota, increasing the concentrations of SCFAs in feces and sera, and reducing the development of airway inflammation by suppressing DC function. Pectin has shown immunomodulatory effects on allergies, although the underlying mechanisms still need to be elucidated. It has been suggested that the different types of pectin may exert direct and/or indirect immunomodulatory effects through different mechanisms. However, little is known about the relation of certain pectin structures to allergies.

Does the Food Ingredient Pectin Provide a Risk for Patients Allergic to Non-Specific Lipid-Transfer Proteins?

Pectin, a dietary fiber, is a polysaccharide that is widely used in food industry as a gelling agent. In addition, prebiotic and beneficial immunomodulatory effects of pectin have been demonstrated, leading to increased importance as food supplement. However, as cases of anaphylactic reactions after consumption of pectin-supplemented foods have been reported, the present study aims to evaluate the allergy risk of pectin. This is of particular importance since most of the pectin used in the food industry is extracted from citrus or apple pomace. Both contain several allergens such as non-specific lipid transfer proteins (nsLTPs), known to induce severe allergic reactions, which could impair the use of pectins in nsLTP allergic patients. Therefore, the present study for the first time was performed to analyze residual nsLTP content in two commercial pectins using different detection methods. Results showed the analytical sensitivity was diminished by the pectin structure. Finally, spiking of pectin with allergenic peach nsLTP Pru p 3 led to the conclusion that the potential residual allergen content in both pectins is below the threshold to induce anaphylactic reactions in nsLTP-allergic patients. This data suggests that consumption of the investigated commercial pectin products provides no risk for inducing severe reactions in nsLTP-allergic patients.