[WORK-REST CYCLE OF COSMONAUTS IN MISSIONS 22/23-39/40 OF THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION].

Analyzed were the results of in-flight monitoring of the work-rest cycle (WRC) of Russian crewmembers during 17 instances of the International space station crew rotation in the period of 2010-2014. Weakly crew health reports of the MCC-M medical group were reviewed as well as documented overworks, sleep shifts and consequent health complaints as testimonies of WRC intensity level. Hard work schedule characterized 69% of the flight weeks. The contributing factors were extravehicular activities, dock and undock operations with transport vehicles and redock operations with orbital modules, joint work with space shuttle crews, preparations for landing, off-nominal events, cargo transfer, procedures from the Task List and requested by the MCC-M. Facts stated by the analysis give grounds to believe that distribution of equally extra and planned works over days and weeks in 2013-2014 was more uniform as compared with 2010-2012. This seems to somewhat obviate "critical" workload levels on the days of particularly important operations.

[Heart rate and energy expenditure during extravehicular activity in different time of day].

The article discusses the comparative heart rate (HR) characteristics associated with day and night extravehicular activities (EVA). HR was commonly higher in the night but not in the daytime. Presumably, the reason is psychological and physiological challenges of the night work on the background of natural performance decrement. These circumstances could lead to elevation of psychic tension and, consequently, increase of heartbeats to a greater extent as compared with daytime EVA. According to the correlation analysis data, the pattern of HR relation to physical loads evaluated by energy expenditure in the daytime was other than at night, i.e. it was positive unlike the nighttime correlation. We cannot exclude it that in the daytime increase in cardiac output (CO) in response to physical work was largely due to increase in HR, whereas it was stroke volume that dominated during night work; at least, it could support CO fully in the periods of low loading.

[Topics of cosmonauts' work and rest management on board the International Space Station].

Intensity of the rest and work cycle (WRC) of the ISS cosmonauts was examined in terms of overplanning, as well as frequency of sleep shifting and incidence of crew overstrain evidenced from the weekly reports of MCC-M medical operators. Level of WRC intensity in the recent ISS missions was compared with the WRC chronicles of early missions made by three crewmembers including one cosmonaut, and subsequent missions by six crewmembers including 2 or 3 cosmonauts. Though weak, a trend toward a WRC reduction in the period of 2010-2011 was achieved through a more realistic task planning for an average cosmonaut.

[Results of operator's work during space flight (experiment "pilot") under different work-and-rest cycles].

The correlation between operator's job quality and crew work-rest cycle (WRC) aboard the International space station was studied. The experiment involved 10 Russian members of ISS missions 17-24 at the age of 35 to 51 yrs. Mission duration varied from 163 to 200 days, averaging 180 days. Each cosmonaut carried out several "pilot" test sessions. The number of sessions per mission ranged from 4 to 6. The procedure consisted of simulating manual operation of transport vehicle Soyuz on the stages of hang-up, berthing and docking with the ISS. Objective job quality parameters were accuracy of the Soyuz and ISS relative motion control and time for completion which actually characterized work rate. WRC intensity was judged by the data of monitoring at the Moscow Mission Control Center. The results lend support to the dependence of operator's efficiency on WRC. In operators aimed at the highest accuracy this dependence manifested itself in work rate parameters; work accuracy but not rate was more WRC-dependent in operators aimed at doing their job fast. In other words, WRC intensity impacted mostly those job qualities that operator considered to be of secondary importance.

[Quality of operator's performance and associated physiological reactions in relation to stress-tolerance].

The purpose was to study operator's stress-resistance by correlating the results of work with its physiological effects associated with the sympathetic system reactions. Hard- and software Neurolab-200M was used to test 10 subjects in two experiments with different stressful conditions. Work efficiency was assessed by time for completion and accuracy of the "Manometers test" challenging the ability to perceive information and to take decision under severe time limitation. Heart rate per a minute, systolic and diastolic blood pressure were measured immediately before and during the test. According to the results of the experiments, two subjects demonstrated low stress-resistance when doing the operator's tests. Comparison of the physiological data of these and the rest subjects showed good agreement with the hypothesis that weak stress-resistance, unlike the strong one, is associated with less pronounced stress-induced sympathetic reactions.

[General condition evaluations by members of ISS missions 1 to 15].

Traditionally crew questioning about general wellbeing is a part of their psychic monitoring. Information provided during compasses at the Earth's request is included in the neuropsychic section of the weekly crew health report prepared by the medical support group at the Moscow Mission Control Center. Purpose of the work was to analyze the structure content of comments on well-being made by the members of ISS-1-15 crews as well as emotionality of these comments excited by heavy work-rest schedule and length of space duties. Most often well-being evaluations were positive varying within the range from non-committal "all right" and reserved "It's OK" to exaggerated "terrific" "great" "fine"and "perfect"which were more common to astronauts than cosmonauts. Cosmonauts' comments had the seal of personality It was recognized that the demanding work/rest schedule had little impact on the comments and that they did not change with time during 24-wk missions.

[Evaluation of operator's quality using test "Manometers" implemented with the use of hard- and software Neurolab-2000M].

Purpose of the work was to correlate the quality parameters (speed and accuracy) of test Manometers implementation with the use of hard- and software Neurolab-2000M. The operator's quality parameters were latent reaction time (LRT) as a speed criterion, number of errors as an accuracy criterion, and speed and accuracy dependent time of task presentation (TP). The parameters were related by evaluation of statistical significance of calculated linear correlation coefficients Correlations between TP and LRT as well as between LRT and the number of errors were neither unique nor significant. On the opposite, TP and the number of errors were in direct correlation on the level of proximity and high statistical significance. These results suggest that, like the number of errors, TP can serve as a criterion of test completion accuracy. Regarding LRT, the parameter is not suitable for evaluation of accuracy of the Manometers test completion.

[Job quality evaluation with regard to individual stress tolerance of operators].

Male test-subjects (n = 8, 25 to 36 years of age) were kept awake and working for 67 hrs. in an anechoic room. Every 1-2 hours the test-subjects performed eye-tracking of rhythmic light points with an abrupt and unexpected change of frequency. The task was to strike the key the moment the frequency was noticed to have changed. One test session took 10 to 15 minutes; depending on test duration, the number of frequency change could be from 38 up to 59-60. The moments of frequency change and keystroke were registered. Latent reaction time was determined (LRT). Individual LRT values and variations (SD) were evaluated. A statistically significant correlation between individual LRT values and variations was established, i.e. high SD corresponded to high LRT values and visa versa. Thus the worst test results were associated with high LRT values and variations, whereas, on the contrary, the best test results were characterized by low LRT values and variations. Data of the investigation are subject to analysis with regard to their relation to operator's stress tolerance; possible neurophysiological mechanisms of this relation are discussed.

[The correlation between the heart contraction rate and the operator's stress-resistance].

There is factual confirmation of the correlation between operator's stress-resistance and heart rate (HR). HR data alone without assessment of the job quality in a group of operators were enough to rank the operators by their resistance to stress. However, there are several requirements to be met. To begin with, operators should experience a weak or moderate mental stress that will modify HR. Secondly, other sympathetic influences should be reduced to a minimum, as they may mask the emotion-driven effects (motor activity, elevated tone of posture muscles, meals). With this in view, HR measurements are advisable during night sleep to escape, in addition, the endogenous sympathetic activation associated with ergotrophic metabolism. In the day time, HR should be measured after 10 to 15 minutes in recumbent position.

[Heart rate of operators with various levels of stress-tolerance].

The paper presents results of the investigation with 8 male subjects 25 to 36 y.o. attesting the existence of relation between stress tolerance evidenced from the data about tracking function during extended continuous wakefulness and the sympathetic activity assessed by heart rate values. Based on there results, the higher stress tolerance, the lower baseline sympathicotonia and the stronger sympathetic reactions to adequate stimuli.

[Stress effects of 72-hour sleep deprivation].

Stress effects of 3-d (72-hr) continuous vigilance were studied for renal excretion of 17-oxycorticoids (17-KS), electrolytes (potassium and sodium), and liquid. The investigation involved 12 male subjects aged 23 to 36. Baseline parameters displayed diurnal variations with comparatively high day and comparatively low night values. During the 72-hr vigilance, significant and consistent (statistically fiducial) intensification of 17-KS and potassium excretion occurred in the night-time, i.e., in the period of naturally low values, but only in the first two sleepless nights. As for sodium and liquid excretion, stress-related reduction in these parameters was more consistent and distinct in the day-time, i.e., in the period of naturally high values, rather than in the nighttime. Therefore, the two factors that should be accounted for by investigators of continuous vigilance (and, maybe, other stresses) are the anticipated direction of a stress-reaction and baseline diurnal variation of parameters under study. If stress is expected to increase a parameter, measurements should be done when the parameter is naturally low and, vice versa, if stress is known to reduce a parameter, then measurement should be planned in the period when it is naturally high. If direction of stress-related changes is predictable, investigations can be performed on a twenty-four hour basis.

[Dynamics of operator's efficiency under the condition of long continuous vigil].

Chambered male test-subjects (n = 8) kept awake over 72 hours. Every one or two hours during the initial 67 hours they did a tracking test that took 10 to 15 minutes. The test required intense tracking of rhythmic light spots with unpredictably varying frequency and pressing the button as the frequency changed. Time of latent reaction was determined. The variable was shown to extend with the confinement and fluctuate with the period of approx. 28 hours. Average values on the first sleepless night was longer than the ones on the previous day in all subjects with personal difference ranging from 7 to 37% and averaging 21%. That is, on the first night everyone was less efficient as compared with the previous day which could be excused by fatigue and natural variations in mental efficiency known to rise in the day and reduce in the night hours.

[The present-day issues of ecology, and possible solutions].

Ecology is considered an interdisciplinary bank of knowledge about the relations of humans with nature and anthropogenic environment. The central issue of ecology is prevention of the global catastrophe in consequence of anthropogenic factors. The dire threat of the ecological catastrophe comes from breaching the principle of co-evolution of mankind and nature due to the unilateral prevalence of human interests during formation of the civilization. Issues revealed by the analysis of the present-day knowledge of ecology can be resolved by creating an ecology-oriented ethic system (moral imperative or ecology-focused morals) an ecological imperative (internationally endorsed bans), and taking actions toward the recovery of ruined and preservation of survived eco-systems. Of special concern is analysis of the doctrine of noosphere developed by V.I. Vernadsky. The authors also dwell upon eco-monitoring and prediction with account of the rhythm of animate nature and abiocoen.

[Stress and microgravity].

There is an opinion that microgravity does not stress organism of mammalians, humans are not excluded, first of all because of the lack of evidence of activation of the cortical and medullary substance in the adrenals. The article brings forward an argument for the stressful nature of microgravity. Guided by the theoretical assumptions and by factual data, the author makes a supposition that microgravity suppresses stress-reactions implemented by the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal and sympathoadrenal systems, for the reason that these reactions have same catabolic features as the specific effects of microgravity. In other words, we should not wave off the idea that to prevent muscular atrophy in microgravity, organism triggers mechanisms of blocking the classic paths of the non-specific stress-reaction involving the glucocorticoid and catecholamine functions of the adrenals. From this standpoint, microgravity modifies markedly the overall pattern of stress reaction, which does not overthrow the concept about the non-specific character of stress and microgravity as a stress-factor.

Some aspects of psychophysiological support of crewmember's performance reliability in space flight.

Crewmembers play an important role in ensuring the efficiency of "crew-spacecraft" system. However, despite of the fact that crewmembers are well trained and highly motivated persons, extreme flight factors may influence negatively on their reliability, and lead to human error occurrence. Therefore, working out methods of human error prevention is very significant to increase crewmember's performance reliability. Human error can occur in the operation of systems for a number of reasons. Within the framework of the present investigation, with use the data collected during "Mir" station missions, the significant (p<0.05) positive correlation of crewmembers errors (CE) frequency with their psychophysiological state (PPS), and work and rest schedule (WRS) intensity has been revealed. Differently, the higher WRS intensity, the crewmember's PPS is worse, and CE frequency is higher. This finding has been based on substantiations of the approach to human reliability management. Its essence will consist of the following: reducing WRS intensity, we thus can improve a crewmember's PPS and, accordingly, reduce CE frequency. This approach is discussed in the paper.

[The bio-rhythmic problems of a space flight]. / Bioritmologicheskie problemy kosmicheskogo poleta.

The influence of space-flight factors on the organism's circadian periodicity is discussed. It is shown that in mechanisms of such influence, the transformation of natural structure of Zeitgebers accompanying a space flight, can play the essential role. It is confirmed by the results of ground research carried out in conditions of isolation simulating the usual space flight transformation of Zeitgebers system. The data obtained in the ground researches with isolation, testify that the changes of circadian rhythms in these conditions are similar to those in space flights and frequently are interpreted as the result of influence of weightlessness. Special attention is paid to phenomenon of delay of the daily maximum and to possible connection of this phenomenon with the tendency to transition of rhythmic process in a free-running regime.

[The national history space chronobiology]. / Otechestvennye istoki kosmicheskoi bioritmologii.

Analyzed were theories stated in the treatises of Russian researchers V.I. Nikolsky, N.Ya. Perna and A.L. Chizhevsky dedicated to the place of the phenomenon of rhythm in biology and medicine. The authors underline the inceptive role of the fundamental ideas of these scientists in formation and development of space biorhythmology in this country. Presented are main postulates in the area of space biorhythmology formulated in the period of fulfillment of the Russian piloted space programmes.

[A mission to Mars: the prognostic analysis of concurrent psychological problems]. / Polet na Mars: prognosticheskii analiz soputstvuiushchikh psikhologicheskikh problem.

Psychological implications of situations that may take place during a mission to Mars including desynchronosis, fatigue, psychic asthenization, acute mental disorders, interruption of the information flow, unpredicted transformation of the socio-psychological needs, a persistent conflict tension in the crew, errors in manual control of the vehicle, refusal or impossibility to fulfill an operation, difficulties in communication between the crew and ground controllers were analyzed for determination of their causes and consequences, probable starting time, ways and methods of preventing and surmounting each of these situations.

[Biological rhythm as a reflection of the unity of creation and destruction (life and death)]. / Biologicheskii ritm kak otrazhenie edinstva sozidaniia i razrusheniia (zhizni i smerti).

The paper deals with the analysis of fundamental aspects of nature of the biological rhythm, antinomies incident to this phenomenon, its relation to the phenomena of life and death. The biological rhythm is viewed as an exemplification of the singleness of two qualitatively different states--destruction and creation, dissimilation and assimilation. Since destruction of biological structures in the course of dissimilation is irreversible by character, there is every reason to equal it with death, and to consider life the counter process of assimilative synthesis (creation) of chemical compounds directed toward revival of living substance. From this standpoint, the day phase of the circadian rhythm marked by dominance of destructive processes is a kind of death, whereas the night phase characterized by prevalence of the recovery processes signifies life. That is why the daytime status of organism differs from that at night, which is directly related to diagnostics of internal diseases: in the daytime and at night the same patient seems to be two different persons. Therefore, investigating him not only in the daytime but also at night, we could get more intimate understanding of his diseases, that is make an exhaustive diagnosis. Efficiency of night investigations combined with daytime ones has been confirmed by clinical investigations.

[Psychological aspects of training for and implementation of a piloted expedition to Mars]. / Psikhologicheskie aspekty podgotovki i osushchestvleniia pilotiruemoi ékspeditsii na Mars.

Reviewed are the modern notions of the main psychological concerns regarding a mission to Mars which are maintenance of mental health, high professional reliability, and successful readaptation of the Martian crew on return to Earth. The unprecedent trail-blazing interplanetary mission distinguished by autonomy, long period, international crew and a broad range of tasks to tend will set particularly difficult requirements to the psychological support system. Among them prioritized are purposeful character building and training of future crew members already in childhood and youth. The primary goal is to bring up personality with anthropocosmic thinking as a professional quality that will eventually determine personal and professional reliability. Within the system of psychological support, the central place should be given to monitoring of crew mental heath and behavior, and preventive an corrective measures. The longer Martian day (24 hr. 36 min.) rises the issue of effective adaptation to this factor. Special simulators will be required aboard the vehicle to help the crew refresh skills in manipulation of the dynamic board systems. The program of psychological support to the Martian crew must be thoroughly tested in model studies (Antarctic field, ground-based experiments, orbital flights, Lunar base).