The Impact of Drop Test Conditions on Brain Strain Location and Severity: A Novel Approach Using a Deep Learning Model.

In contact sports such as rugby, players are at risk of sustaining traumatic brain injuries (TBI) due to high-intensity head impacts that generate high linear and rotational accelerations of the head. Previous studies have established a clear link between high-intensity head impacts and brain strains that result in concussions. This study presents a novel approach to investigating the effect of a range of laboratory controlled drop test parameters on regional peak and mean maximum principal strain (MPS) predictions within the brain using a trained convolutional neural network (CNN). The CNN is publicly available at https://github.com/Jilab-biomechanics/CNN-brain-strains . The results of this study corroborate previous findings that impacts to the side of the head result in significantly higher regional MPS than forehead impacts. Forehead impacts tend to result in the lowest region-averaged MPS values for impacts where the surface angle was at 0° and 45°, while side impacts tend to result in higher regional peak and mean MPS. The absence of a neck in drop tests resulted in lower regional peak and mean MPS values. The results indicated that the relationship between drop test parameters and resulting regional peak and mean MPS predictions is complex. The study's findings offer valuable insights into how deep learning models can be used to provide more detailed insights into how drop test conditions impact regional MPS. The novel approach used in this paper to predict brain strains can be applied in the development of better methods to reduce the brain strain resulting from head accelerations such as protective sports headgear.

The Influence of Noise Level on the Stress Response of Hospitalized Cats.

The study aimed to investigate the impact of noise levels in the hospital environment on the stress experienced by hospitalized cats undergoing elective ovariohysterectomy surgery. A total of 33 domestic female cats were included in the study, divided into four groups: a control group (CG) and three experimental groups based on ward noise levels: G1 (Quiet, <60 dB), G2 (Medium, between 60 and 85 dB), and G3 (Noisy, >85 dB). Behavioral assessments, respiratory rate (RR), and plasma cortisol levels ([Cort]p) were measured as indicators of stress. A composite measure of stress, termed the final stress value (FSV), was calculated by summing scores across various behavioral categories. Data collection occurred at three time points: immediately following surgery (T1), and at 2 h (T2) and 3 h (T3) post-surgery. FSV and RR were assessed at all three time points (T1, T2, and T3), while [Cort]p levels were measured at T1 and T3. The study observed that the median values of FSV, RR, and [Cort]p tended to increase with both higher noise levels and longer exposure durations to noise. Significant differences in RR were found between group pairs G1G2 at T1 (|D| = 0.63 < cut-off = 0.98), and G2G3 at T2 (|D| = 0.69 < cut-off = 0.97). Regarding [Cort]p, significant differences were noted between the CGG1 group pair at T0 (p < 0.01), and T3 (p = 0.03). Furthermore, an excellent Spearman correlation coefficient (rho = 0.91) was found between FSV and RR, indicating that RR can serve as an effective tool for assessing stress levels in cats. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the welfare of cats in a hospital environment and support the scientific validity of existing recommendations aimed at improving their well-being. Specifically, the study underscores the importance of minimizing noise levels in hospitals as a means to reduce stress in cats. This conclusion aligns with existing guidelines and recommendations for enhancing the welfare of hospitalized cats.

Comparison of multidirectional upper limb strength for non-disabled individuals and individuals with C4-C7 spinal cord injury in a seated position.

This study investigates the multidirectional upper limb strength of individuals with a C4-C7 spinal cord injury (SCI) and non-disabled individuals in a seated position by measuring multidirectional force at the hand. Current literature lacks quantitative strength data to evaluate strength requirements for people who have reduced upper limb function due to a cervical SCI. Seated multidirectional force measurements were recorded for eleven non-disabled and ten males with a C4-C7 SCI. Collected data was displayed using detailed force polar plots. The resulting plots revealed a clear difference in polar plot shape for non-disabled participants and participants with a C4-C7 SCI. Namely that SCI participants had more elliptical polar plots due to reductions in circumferential strength compared to non-disabled participants. However, the polar plots for higher SCIs tended to have an increasingly more circular shape. The results provide insight into the differences in strength between people with cervical SCI and no disability.

This paper presents seated multidirectional arm strength data from 21 SCI and non-disabled participants. Force polar plots display the applied force magnitudes and directions for reachable points which can be used to evaluate the force requirements based on SCI level. Results highlighted strength reductions for people with higher SCIs.

Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated with Rib Lesions in Dairy Cows.

Unilateral or bilateral hard bony enlargement is sometimes palpated over dairy cows' ribs. Although usually not painful, these injuries may have welfare and economic implications and can be used as indicators of poor husbandry conditions. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of rib lesions in dairy cows kept in intensive systems and to identify the risk factors either associated with the housing or with the animal's clinical history. We examined the ribs of all 1319 lactating cows from 22 Portuguese dairy farms. In each farm, housing and animal potential risk factors were recorded. Additionally, clinical examination, including lameness scoring, was performed on all cows showing rib lesions. The global rib lesions' prevalence per farm was 2.3%, ranging from 0% (n = 12 farms) to 6.1% (n = 1 farm). Lesions were found in cows with an average of 3.7 lactations. The main farm risk factors were narrow stalls; insufficient feeding places; insufficient cubicles; and the presence of an exposed curb at the back end of the stalls. Rib lesions were associated with a history of lameness but not with lame cows at the moment of examination or a history of being a downer cow. In conclusion, rib lesions' prevalence can be high in some farms, being significantly associated with cubicle design and lameness. By being associated with chronic lameness and inadequate housing, rib lesions should be included in dairy cows' welfare assessment protocols.

Epidemiological characteristics of bovine besnoitiosis (Besnoitia besnoiti) in a beef cattle farm: a cross-sectional serological assessment.

Background: Bovine besnoitiosis is an emerging disease caused by the protozoa Besnoitia besnoiti that can have a serious economic impact on affected farms. The fact that there is no effective vaccine nor treatment, along with the lack of consistent epidemiologic data, renders the implementation of preventive medicine and control strategies much harder. Objectives: A cross-sectional serological assessment was performed to better understand the distribution and prevalence of this parasite in a large beef cattle farm in Portugal and to establish some epidemiological characteristics of besnoitiosis. Methods: A random blood sampling of 450 animals from a farm that keeps around 2,000 cattle head was performed and sera were submitted to an indirect immunofluorescent antibody test (IFAT). Data on breed, age, sex, and birthplace of the tested animals and their mothers were recorded. Results: The overall prevalence of positive animals was 16.89%, with significant differences between under 1-year-old calves (4.8%) and adults (19.67%). A higher antibody prevalence was shown in animals 1-2 years and >7 years old, in Salers breed and in cows imported from France or whose mothers had come from this country. Calves under 1 year old and crossbreed animals with ancestry born in the current farm presented the lowest antibody prevalence. Discussion and conclusions: The most significant risk factors revealed were age (>7 years old) and breed (Salers). Genetic studies should be carried out in order to confirm whether indeed there is a breed susceptibility to bovine besnoitiosis. We suggest that similar studies should be performed across southern Europe to establish strong epidemiologic data that would allow a rigorous transnational control program to be launched.

Quantitative functional assessment of multidirectional upper limb strength for individuals in a seated position.

Understanding the limitations that are imposed by a disability is critical to ensure engineers develop designs that can be used by people with reduced function. Current literature lacks detail on this information for people with cervical spinal cord injuries. The purpose of this study was to investigate the reliability of a novel testing methodology to quantitatively assess the multi-directional upper limb strength of individuals in a seated position. Eleven non-disabled males and 10 males with a C4-C7 spinal cord injury completed isometric strength tests on parasagittal (XY) planes using a novel method. Multidirectional (XY) force measurements were taken at discrete points within the participant's reach envelope. Isometric force trends and analysis of the coefficients of variation were used to evaluate the novel methodology. The isometric force trends were consistent in showing a reduction in strength for people with higher injury levels. Analysis of the coefficient of variation showed that the methodology produces repeatable results with an average coefficient of variation of 18% and 19% for the right and left upper limbs, respectively. These results show that the novel testing methodology is a reliable way to gather quantitative multidirectional upper limb strength data for individuals in a seated position.

Evaluation of Chute Exit, Novelty and Human Approach Tests in Mertolenga Beef Cattle.

Livestock behavior and welfare are increasingly recognized to be related, not only to the animals' handling, but also with productivity. The present work was carried out at the Mertolenga Breed Testing Center and its objective was to evaluate the behavior of Mertolenga breed young bulls when exiting the chute, the reaction to novelty and human approach tests, as well as to understand if the responses between these tests are related. Twenty-nine Mertolenga-bred young bulls from 16 different farms, aged between 8 and 13 months, entered the study farm from the end of May to the beginning of June 2021. Data was collected on six different days and analyzed with the SAS® 9.4 software. Older animals showed a tendency to leave the chute more calmly, take longer to touch the novelty ball and to touch the ball less often, with a consequent reduction in the likelihood of playing with it. In the human approach test, animals that came out of the chute more calmly allowed the human to come closer. These behavior tests should be further studied on potential sires, so as to increase docility and manageability of autochthonous beef breeds.

Anthelmintic Efficacy in Sheep and Goats under Different Management and Deworming Systems in the Region of Lisbon and Tagus Valley, Portugal.

Infections caused by gastrointestinal parasites have been described worldwide as one of the most important issues impacting small ruminant production. The systematic administration of anthelmintic (AH) drugs without following good practice principles has led to an increase in anthelmintic resistance (AR). There is scarce information regarding AH efficacy in small ruminants in Portugal. This study aimed to characterize by in vivo methods the presence and level of AR in four farms in the region of Lisbon and Tagus Valley. All four farms kept small herds in extensive management systems and used different deworming protocols. The active substances used were fenbendazole and a combination of mebendazole plus closantel in a dosage according to the manufacturers' instructions. On day 0 (T0), fecal samples were collected from all study animals, and animals in the treatment group (n = 40) were dewormed with the AH previously chosen by the assistant veterinarian. Animals in the control group (n = 30) did not receive any AH drug. The fecal sample collection was repeated on day 15 (T15), and the control group was treated. Egg counts were performed using the McMaster method for the eggs per gram (EPG), and AR was evaluated by the fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) with a 95% confidence level (CL). The results from this experiment indicated that the four farms presented AR with two farms to fenbendazole (FECRT of 48% and 85%) and two farms to mebendazole plus closantel (FECRT of 66% and 79%). These results indicate that the gastrointestinal parasites of the four studied Portuguese farms are resistant to benzimidazoles, which suggests an increase in AR regarding nematodes in small ruminant production systems in Portugal.

Bibliometric trend analysis of non-conventional (alternative) therapies in veterinary research.

Background: There is an increased interest in Non-Conventional Therapies (NCTs), often referred to as complementary and alternative medicines, in veterinary clinical practice.Aim: To map the bibliometric outputs of NCTs in veterinary medicine, and identify which are most prevalent, and the extent to which their publishing has increased.Methods: Text mining algorithms were applied to detect 17 NCTs-related terms (acupuncture, ayurveda/ayurvedic, traditional Chinese medicine, traditional medicine, chiropractic, electroacupuncture, essential oil, plant extract, ethnopharmacology, herbal medicine, homeopathy, low-level laser therapy, medicinal plant, natural product, osteopathy, phytotherapy, and massage) in the title, abstract or keywords of all retrievable literature until 2020 under the PubMed MeSH term 'veterinary' (N = 377 556). Point prevalence, incidence by decade and cumulative incidence were calculated.Results: Bibliometric trend analysis revealed an overall increase in NCTs-related terms over the last 20 years, with a substantial growth of studies mentioning plant extracts, essential oils and medicinal plants. Traditional Chinese medicine, herbal medicine and natural product have also increased in the same period, although their numbers remain low. Conversely, reference to acupuncture has decreased in the last decade when compared with the previous decade, whereas references to homeopathy, electroacupuncture, osteopathy and chiropractic remained scarce, suggesting that their use in veterinary clinical practice may not be based on published evidence.Conclusion: Further reviews to explore this issue are warranted, differentiating secondary from primary literature, and assessing relevance and methodological quality of individual studies, following the principles of evidence-based veterinary medicine.

Applying a New Proposed Welfare Assessment Protocol to Suckler Herds from Three Different Autochthonous Breeds.

The welfare of farm animals has become an increasingly important issue for society, especially for consumers of animal products. Currently, there is no standardized and validated protocol in Portugal for assessing the welfare of suckler cow herds in extensive systems. This work aims to study and apply previously used indicators, based on behavior, mental status, health, body condition, and interactions with the environment. Criteria and measures were adapted from protocols for cattle in other production systems (Welfare Quality®, WQ) or protocols set for pasture-based cattle in New Zealand. To the WQ measures, such as body condition, absence of injuries and diseases, positive emotional state and management indicators, we added behavior when in the chute, distance to water points, positioning of ear tags, and thermal comfort. The feasibility of the protocol was assessed in herds with cows belonging to three different Portuguese autochthonous beef breeds. The welfare of the herds was considered good or excellent, with only the behavior at the chute being negatively scored in the Brava breed. The application and validation of indicators to correctly assess animal welfare all along the production chain is crucial to achieve certification, and to the identification and correction of causes of poor welfare.

Predictive Models of Dairy Cow Thermal State: A Review from a Technological Perspective.

Dairy cattle are particularly sensitive to heat stress due to the higher metabolic rate needed for milk production. In recent decades, global warming and the increase in dairy production in warmer countries have stimulated the development of a wide range of environmental control systems for dairy farms. Despite their proven effectiveness, the associated energy and water consumption can compromise the viability of dairy farms in many regions, due to the cost and scarcity of these resources. To make these systems more efficient, they should be activated in time to prevent thermal stress and switched off when that risk no longer exists, which must consider environmental variables as well as the variables of the animals themselves. Nowadays, there is a wide range of sensors and equipment that support farm routine procedures, and it is possible to measure several variables that, with the aid of algorithms based on predictive models, would allow anticipating animals' thermal states. This review summarizes three types of approaches as predictive models: bioclimatic indexes, machine learning, and mechanistic models. It also focuses on the application of the current knowledge as algorithms to be used in the management of diverse types of environmental control systems.

Extensive Sheep and Goat Production: The Role of Novel Technologies towards Sustainability and Animal Welfare.

Sheep and goat extensive production systems are very important in the context of global food security and the use of rangelands that have no alternative agricultural use. In such systems, there are enormous challenges to address. These include, for instance, classical production issues, such as nutrition or reproduction, as well as carbon-efficient systems within the climate-change context. An adequate response to these issues is determinant to economic and environmental sustainability. The answers to such problems need to combine efficiently not only the classical production aspects, but also the increasingly important health, welfare, and environmental aspects in an integrated fashion. The purpose of the study was to review the application of technological developments, in addition to remote-sensing in tandem with other state-of-the-art techniques that could be used within the framework of extensive production systems of sheep and goats and their impact on nutrition, production, and ultimately, the welfare of these species. In addition to precision livestock farming (PLF), these include other relevant technologies, namely omics and other areas of relevance in small-ruminant extensive production: heat stress, colostrum intake, passive immunity, newborn survival, biomarkers of metabolic disease diagnosis, and parasite resistance breeding. This work shows the substantial, dynamic nature of the scientific community to contribute to solutions that make extensive production systems of sheep and goats more sustainable, efficient, and aligned with current concerns with the environment and welfare.

Evaluation of Inter-Observer Reliability of Animal Welfare Indicators: Which Is the Best Index to Use?

This study focuses on the problem of assessing inter-observer reliability (IOR) in the case of dichotomous categorical animal-based welfare indicators and the presence of two observers. Based on observations obtained from Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) project surveys conducted on nine dairy goat farms, and using udder asymmetry as an indicator, we compared the performance of the most popular agreement indexes available in the literature: Scott's π, Cohen's k, kPABAK, Holsti's H, Krippendorff's α, Hubert's Γ, Janson and Vegelius' J, Bangdiwala's B, Andrés and Marzo's ∆, and Gwet's γ(AC1). Confidence intervals were calculated using closed formulas of variance estimates for π, k, kPABAK, H, α, Γ, J, ∆, and γ(AC1), while the bootstrap and exact bootstrap methods were used for all the indexes. All the indexes and closed formulas of variance estimates were calculated using Microsoft Excel. The bootstrap method was performed with R software, while the exact bootstrap method was performed with SAS software. k, π, and α exhibited a paradoxical behavior, showing unacceptably low values even in the presence of very high concordance rates. B and γ(AC1) showed values very close to the concordance rate, independently of its value. Both bootstrap and exact bootstrap methods turned out to be simpler compared to the implementation of closed variance formulas and provided effective confidence intervals for all the considered indexes. The best approach for measuring IOR in these cases is the use of B or γ(AC1), with bootstrap or exact bootstrap methods for confidence interval calculation.

Impact of pre-slaughter factors on welfare of broilers.

Pre-slaughter factors adversely affecting bird welfare were studied at the slaughterhouse. The incidence of dead on arrival (DoA), bruises and dehydration was investigated in 64 different mixed-sex batches of broilers coming from 64 different farms rearing fast-growing genotypes (Ross or Cobb). The effects of catching team, method of catching, time of day for catching and transport, density per cage, transport duration, transport distance, lairage duration and water withdrawal were considered. The average DoA was 0.29%, ranging from 0.02% to 1.89% per batch. DoA rate has a higher probability of increase with the increase in transport distance (t=2.142; P=0.037; estimate=0.009) and with catching the birds after midnight (t=-2.931; P=0.005; estimate=0.022). Longer transport durations for birds caught after midnight as well as longer lairage durations for birds caught after midnight are associated with the increase of DoA rate. Bruises were observed in 3.37% of birds, ranging from 0.43% to 8.29% per batch. Bruises occurred mostly on wings (3.06%), followed by legs (0.19%) and breast (0.12%). A higher percentage of bruises occurred in batches with more birds per transport crate (t=2.185; P=0.029; estimate=0.001). Dehydrated carcasses were observed in 22 out of 64 batches, accounting for 2.68% of condemnations. Signs of dehydration on carcasses were more frequently observed in batches subjected to longer withdrawal durations. Short transport distances, catching the birds before midnight and doing the transport by night are crucial in decreasing the DoA rate. Catching and crating processes seem to be responsible for the increase of percentage of bruises. Pre-slaughter operations should be adequate planned namely, transport and lairage durations, catching period and crating procedure in view to reduce negative effects on animal welfare.

Opinions of Portuguese Veterinarians on Telemedicine-A Policy Delphi Study.

Telemedicine has only received limited attention by veterinary professional regulatory bodies, particularly in Europe. In Portugal, telemedicine is currently outside what is considered acceptable practice by the regulator, the Portuguese Veterinary Order (Ordem dos Médicos Veterinários). As part of a wider research aimed at gathering evidence for developing a new veterinary Code of Professional Conduct, this study describes the use of the Policy Delphi technique to gather the views and perceptions of a purposeful sample of 41 Portuguese veterinarians regarding telemedicine. Four main issues were addressed using mixed research methods: teleconsultation, teleconsulting, teleadvice, and the regulator's role. Responses highlight participants' perception of both the relevance of medical digital technologies in improving healthcare and their limitations. Overall opinion was that, although restrictions to remote veterinary practice should be reduced, improved guidance and regulation are warranted. Eighty percent of participants considered that limits to the use of veterinary telemedicine should be imposed and two thirds considered that a remote consultation must always be preceded by a face-to-face consultation. While most respondents thought that vet-to-vet teleconsulting using social media (namely Facebook) should not be banned, 83% recognized that it should be regulated by ethical standards. Participants' concerns with telemedicine had mostly to do with reputational risk for the veterinary profession, while overlooking privacy or confidentiality issues. A consultative group should be established to ensure that telemedicine providers comply with professional requirements. It is expected that these results will support policy-making by the Portuguese Veterinary Order and by veterinary regulators at other jurisdictions.

Establishing Animal Welfare Rules of Conduct for the Portuguese Veterinary Profession-Results from a Policy Delphi with Vignettes.

Promoting animal welfare is one of the basic tenets of the veterinary profession and, in doing so, veterinarians are expected to abide to the highest legal and professional standards. However, the Portuguese veterinary code of conduct, established in 1994, largely overlooks animal welfare and fails to address issues such as the euthanasia or humane killing of animals. As part of a wider research aiming to revise the Portuguese veterinary code of conduct, a Policy Delphi study was conducted in late 2018, using a pre-validated three-round structure and vignette methodology, to explore the range of opinions and the level of agreement on end-of-life dilemmas and animal welfare rules of conduct of a purposeful sample of forty-one (out of seventy) Portuguese veterinarians. When faced with ethical vignettes involving end-of-life dilemmas, veterinarians were shown to privilege personal moral agency over legal obligations in order to defend the interests of stakeholders, namely of the animals. Most participants agreed that the suggested animal welfare rules of conduct reflected their own views on the subject (88%), in addition to representing a significant improvement in terms of regulatory standards (93%). We expect that this study will support regulation and policy-making by the Portuguese Veterinary Order and by veterinary representative bodies elsewhere.

Evaluation of Pain Mitigation Strategies in Goat Kids after Cautery Disbudding.

Nowadays, most of the goat milk production in developed countries is done in intensive indoors production systems. In these systems, procedures such as disbudding are performed routinely. Disbudding is done in young goat kids and is a recognised as a painful procedure. Pain mitigation strategies have been extensively researched, but a method that is effective in mitigating pain as well as being safe and practical has not yet been found. In this paper we used three treatment groups: one control and two groups with pain mitigation strategies for cautery disbudding, one using local anaesthesia (lidocaine) and a second one using local anaesthesia (lidocaine) plus an analgesic (flunixin meglumine). The behaviour of twenty-seven goat kids was recorded for three hours after disbudding. Overall, the goat kids that received both pain mitigation treatments dedicated more time performing active and positive behaviours. Nevertheless, the incidence of behaviours related to pain and discomfort was not consistently reduced. Research is still needed to find a practical and effective pain mitigation strategy for disbudding. A solution to this challenge would improve animal welfare as well as address societal concerns linked to the suffering of farm animals.

Influence of different housing systems on prevalence of keel bone lesions in laying hens.

The present study aimed to investigate the effect of three housing systems (furnished cages - FC, barns - B, and free-range - FR) on the prevalence and severity of keel bone protrusion and deformations. These health and welfare indicators were measured at the slaughterhouse, using a 4-point scale (0 = absence, 1 = slight, 2 = moderate and 3 = severe). Keel bone deformation was also categorized in relation to the presence of compression over the ventral surface, deviation from a 2D straight plane and deviation from the transverse (C-shaped) or median sagittal (S-shaped) plane. The housing system had a significant effect on prevalence of keel bone deformation (χ2 = 45.465, df = 6, P < 0.001). In FR systems 60.4% of hens presented keel bone deformation, followed by 54.2% in FC and 53.5% in B; however, higher scores for keel bone deformations were more frequent in B systems. Although keel bone protrusion was observed in all laying hen systems, the majority of hens only presented a slight degree (score 1) of protrusion. A positive correlation was obtained for keel bone protrusion and emaciation. The results could be used to initiate detailed investigations into problematic issues that occur during the laying period to improve the health and welfare conditions on farms.

The role of claw deformation and claw size on goat lameness.

Lameness due to claw overgrowth remains one of the main welfare challenges in dairy goat farms. Although claw trimming is a crucial part of the solution, most times there is a delay in its implementation, with no perceived consequences. The goal of this cross-sectional study was to assess the correlation between the size and deformation of dairy goats claws with lameness score. The width and length of the claws of 38 adult dairy goats were taken and classified as deformed (DEF) or non-deformed (NO_DEF). Lameness was also scored in the majority of the animals assessed for claw deformation. Deformation of at least one claw was present in 34 animals (89% of the total sample). From the 34 goats with deformed claws, 33 presented at least one deformed rear claw and 18 presented at least one deformed front claw. From the 152 claws assessed 58% were deformed (n = 88), of which 19% (n = 29) were front claws and 39% were rear claws (n = 59). Increased width of the front claws was associated with increased likelihood of having deformation with odds of 1.24, and the increased length explained 16% of the variation in lameness scores. A positive relation between lameness score and the number of deformed claws was also shown. Overall, these results suggest that the size of dairy goats' claws influences the prevalence of deformation and lameness severity and that the number of deformed claws affects goats' gait. They also help to build the argument in favor of regular trimming in dairy goat farms.