Error traps in pediatric regional anesthesia.

Ultrasound-guided nerve blocks have revolutionized the way we provide regional anesthesia. By providing effective perioperative pain control, regional anesthesia reduces opioid consumption, decreases length of stay, and increases patient/parental satisfaction. However, error traps (circumstances that lead to erroneous actions) can defeat its inherent benefits and may result in adverse outcomes. This article focuses on promoting a culture of safety by highlighting five common avoidable error traps encountered while providing regional anesthesia for pediatric patients. They include failure to confirm intended block site, failure to optimize ultrasound images and identify artifacts, failure to recognize when regional anesthesia is an acceptable option, failure to implement alternative imaging techniques when anatomy is challenging, and failure to recognize disease states with abnormal anatomy that may require alternative blocks. These issues are easily addressed if the pediatric regionalist is cognizant of the appropriate ways to mitigate them, and, as such, we review strategies to avoid them.

Complications in Pediatric Regional Anesthesia: An Analysis of More than 100,000 Blocks from the Pediatric Regional Anesthesia Network.

WHAT WE ALREADY KNOW ABOUT THIS TOPIC: WHAT THIS ARTICLE TELLS US THAT IS NEW: BACKGROUND:: Complications in pediatric regional anesthesia are rare, so a large sample size is necessary to quantify risk. The Pediatric Regional Anesthesia Network contains data on more than 100,000 blocks administered at more than 20 children's hospitals. This study analyzed the risk of major complications associated with regional anesthesia in children. METHODS: This is a prospective, observational study of routine clinical practice. Data were collected on every regional block placed by an anesthesiologist at participating institutions and were uploaded to a secure database. The data were audited at multiple points for accuracy. RESULTS: There were no permanent neurologic deficits reported (95% CI, 0 to 0.4:10,000). The risk of transient neurologic deficit was 2.4:10,000 (95% CI, 1.6 to 3.6:10,000) and was not different between peripheral and neuraxial blocks. The risk of severe local anesthetic systemic toxicity was 0.76:10,000 (95% CI, 0.3 to 1.6:10,000); the majority of cases occurred in infants. There was one epidural abscess reported (0.76:10,000, 95% CI, 0 to 4.8:10,000). The incidence of cutaneous infections was 0.5% (53:10,000, 95% CI, 43 to 64:10,000). There were no hematomas associated with neuraxial catheters (95% CI, 0 to 3.5:10,000), but one epidural hematoma occurred with a paravertebral catheter. No additional risk was observed with placing blocks under general anesthesia. The most common adverse events were benign catheter-related failures (4%). CONCLUSIONS: The data from this study demonstrate a level of safety in pediatric regional anesthesia that is comparable to adult practice and confirms the safety of placing blocks under general anesthesia in children.

Efficacy of magnesium as an adjuvant to bupivacaine in 3-in-1 nerve block for arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament repair.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Three-in-one and femoral nerve blocks are proven modalities for postoperative analgesia following anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of magnesium (Mg) as an adjuvant to bupivacaine in 3-in-1 block for ACL reconstruction. METHODS: Sixty patients undergoing arthroscopic ACL reconstruction were randomly allocated to Group I (3-in-1 block with 30 ml of 0.25% bupivacaine preceded by 1.5 ml of intravenous [IV] saline), Group II (3-in-1 block with 30 ml of 0.25% bupivacaine preceded by 1.5 ml of solution containing 150 mg Mg IV) or Group III (3-in-1 block with 30 ml containing 0.25% bupivacaine and 150 mg of Mg as adjuvant preceded by 1.5 ml of IV saline). Post-operatively, patients received morphine when visual analogue scale (VAS) score was ≥4. Quantitative parameters were compared using one-way ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis test and qualitative data were analysed using Chi-square test. RESULTS: Demographics, haemodynamic parameters, intra-operative fentanyl requirement, post-operative VAS scores and total morphine requirement were comparable between groups. Time to first analgesic requirement was significantly prolonged in Group III (789 ± 436) min compared to Group I (466 ± 290 min) and Group II (519 ± 274 min), (P = 0.02 and 0.05). Significantly less number of patients in Group III (1/20) received morphine in the first 6 h post-operatively, compared to Group I (8/20) and Group II (6/20) (P = 0.008 and 0.03). No side effects were observed. CONCLUSION: Mg as an adjuvant to bupivacaine in 3-in-1 block for ACL reconstruction significantly prolongs the time to first analgesic requirement and reduces the number of patients requiring morphine in the immediate post-operative period.

Comparison of dexamethasone and clonidine as an adjuvant to 1.5% lignocaine with adrenaline in infraclavicular brachial plexus block for upper limb surgeries.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The role of clonidine as an adjuvant to regional blocks to hasten the onset of the local anesthetics or prolong their duration of action is proven. The efficacy of dexamethasone compared to clonidine as an adjuvant is not known. We aimed to compare the efficacy of dexamethasone versus clonidine as an adjuvant to 1.5% lignocaine with adrenaline in infraclavicular brachial plexus block for upper limb surgeries. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Fifty three American Society of Anaesthesiologists-I and II patients aged 18-60 years scheduled for upper limb surgery were randomized to three groups to receive 1.5% lignocaine with 1:200,000 adrenaline and the study drugs. Group S (n = 13) received normal saline, group D (n = 20) received dexamethasone and group C (n = 20) received clonidine. The time to onset and peak effect, duration of the block (sensory and motor) and postoperative analgesia requirement were recorded. Chi-square and ANOVA test were used for categorical and continuous variables respectively and Bonferroni or post-hoc test for multiple comparisons. P < 0.05 was considered significant. RESULTS: The three groups were comparable in terms of time to onset and peak action of motor and sensory block, postoperative analgesic requirements and pain scores. 90% of the blocks were successful in group C compared to only 60% in group D (P = 0.028). The duration of sensory and motor block in group S, D and C were 217.73 ± 61.41 min, 335.83 ± 97.18 min and 304.72 ± 139.79 min and 205.91 ± 70.1 min, 289.58 ± 78.37 min and 232.5 ± 74.2 min respectively. There was significant prolongation of sensory and motor block in group D as compared to group S (P < 0.5). Time to first analgesic requirement was significantly more in groups C and D as compared with group S (P < 0.5). Clinically significant complications were absent. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that clonidine is more efficacious than dexamethasone as an adjuvant to 1.5% lignocaine in brachial plexus blocks.

Efficacy of diltiazem as an adjunct to lignocaine in intravenous regional anesthesia.

BACKGROUND: Various adjuncts have been used with lignocaine to decrease tourniquet pain and prolong post-operative analgesia during intravenous regional anesthesia (IVRA). Calcium-channel blockers potentiate the analgesic effect of local anesthetics. This study was designed to evaluate the efficacy of diltiazem as an adjunct to lignocaine in IVRA with respect to tourniquet tolerance, perioperative analgesia, and quality of anesthesia. METHODS: In this prospective, randomized, and double-blind study, 40 patients (American Society for Anesthesiologists grade I/II) undergoing elective hand surgery under IVRA were assigned into two groups of 20 each and administered IVRA either with lignocaine 3 mg/kg (group Lignocaine (L)) or lignocaine 3 mg/kg plus diltiazem 0.2 mg/kg (group Lignocaine-Diltiazem (LD)) with normal saline (total volume-40 ml). Hemodynamic parameters, onset of the complete sensory blockade, motor blockade, and intraoperative (tourniquet pain) and post-operative Visual Analogue Scale scores, total intraoperative and consumption of post-operative fentanyl intraoperative were recorded. RESULTS: Sensory block was established in 2.5±0.688 min in group LD verses 5.60±0.851 min in group L. Motor blockade was established in 8.65±0.933 min in group LD and 13.46±0.604 min in group L. The mean VAS scores >3 were attained early at 30 min (3.1±0.912) in group L. Patients in group L requested early rescue analgesic at 30±8.633 min compared with 49.64±7.958 min in group LD. CONCLUSIONS: Diltiazem as an adjunct to lignocaine provided enhanced intraoperative and post-operative analgesia without any significant side effects.

Peri-operative pain management in children with cerebral palsy: comparative efficacy of epidural vs systemic analgesia protocols.

INTRODUCTION: Selective Dorsal Rhizotomy (SDR) is the only surgical intervention with class I evidence supporting permanent reduction in spasticity for children with cerebral palsy (Paediatr Anaesth, 12, 2002, 296; Neurosurg Focus, 21, 2006, e2). Postoperatively, adequate analgesia can be difficult to achieve (J Neurosurg, 105, 2006, 8; Childs Nerv Syst, 17, 2001, 556; Pediatr Neurosurg, 43, 2007, 107; Anesth Analg, 79, 1994, 340; Reg Anesth Pain Med, 24, 1999, 438; Pediatr Anesth, 19, 2009, 1213). This study examines a novel regimen utilizing the combination of epidurally infused ropivacaine - hydromorphone and scheduled ketorolac. This regimen was compared to a protocol utilizing systemic fentanyl and diazepam. METHODS: Following IRB approval, 31 patients receiving epidural analgesia were compared with 41 patients who received systemic analgesia. All surgeries were performed by one surgeon with standardized anesthetic and nursing care. Studied outcomes included: pain scores; episodes of severe pain; nausea, itching; oxygen desaturation; and ICU admission. Data were analyzed using Mann-Whitney U-test, CHI square, and Fisher exact test where indicated with P < 0.05 considered significant. RESULTS: Studied groups had similar demographics, biometrics and disease burdens. Patients in the epidural group had statistically and clinically significant reductions in peak recorded pain scores for each 4-h period in the first 24 postoperative hours. Severe pain (score >5) was markedly reduced in the epidural group with 9% of epidural patients vs. 68% of systemic patients experiencing at least one episode. Fewer epidural patients experienced oxygen desaturation during the first two postoperative days (6.5% vs. 41%, 6.5% vs. 39%). CONCLUSION: Epidural analgesia resulted in substantial improvements in pain control and safety. The data supports the superiority of a multimodal analgesia approach centered on epidural analgesia. A similar protocol should be considered following simple laminectomies or procedures associated with lower-extremity muscle spasm.

Postoperative analgesic efficacy of single high dose and low dose rectal acetaminophen in pediatric ophthalmic surgery.

BACKGROUND: Analgesic efficacy of rectal acetaminophen is variable in different surgical procedures. Little data is available on its efficacy in ophthalmic surgeries. We conducted this prospective, randomized, double blind study to evaluate and compare the efficacy of single high dose and low dose rectal acetaminophen in pediatric ophthalmic surgery over a 24 hour period. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 135 children scheduled for elective ophthalmic surgery were randomly allocated to one of the three groups, high, low, or control (H, L, or N) and received rectal acetaminophen 40 mg/kg, 20 mg/kg or no rectal drug respectively after induction of general anesthesia. Postoperative observations included recovery score, hourly observational pain score (OPS) up to 8 hours, time to first analgesic demand, and requirement of rescue analgesics and antiemetics over a 24 hour period. RESULTS: Nineteen of 30 (63%) of children in group N required postoperative rescue analgesic versus 5/48 (10%) of group H (P <0.0001) and 10/47 (23%) of group L (P =0.0005) during 24 hour period. Mean time to requirement of first analgesic was 206±185 min in group H, 189±203min in group L, and 196 ±170 min in group N (P=0.985). OPS was significantly lower in group H and L compared to group N during first 8 hours. Requirement of rescue antiemetic was 18.7% in group H as compared to 23% each in group L and group N (P >0.5). CONCLUSIONS: Single dose rectal acetaminophen can provide effective postoperative analgesia for pediatric ophthalmic surgery at both high dose (40 mg/kg) and low dose (20 mg/kg) both in early postoperative and over a 24 hour period.

Pediatric airway management: current practices and future directions.

Management of a pediatric airway can be a challenge, especially for the non-pediatric anesthesiologists. Structured algorithms for an unexpected difficult pediatric airway have been missing so far. A recent step wise algorithm, based on the Difficult Airway society (DAS) adult protocol, is a step in the right direction. There have been some exciting advances in development of pediatric extra-glottic devices for maintaining ventilation, and introduction of pediatric versions of new 'non line of sight' laryngoscopes and optical stylets. The exact role of these devices in routine and emergent situations is still evolving. Recent advances in simulation technology has become a valuable tool in imparting psychomotor and procedural skills to trainees and allied healthcare workers. Moving toward the goal of eliminating serious adverse events during the management of routine and difficult pediatric airway, authors propose that institutions develop a dedicated Difficult Airway Service comprising of a team of experts in advanced airway management.

Comparison of Cobra perilaryngeal airway (CobraPLA™) with flexible laryngeal mask airway in terms of device stability and ventilation characteristics in pediatric ophthalmic surgery.

BACKGROUND: Supraglottic airway devices play an important role in ophthalmic surgery. The flexible laryngeal mask airway (LMA™) is generally the preferred airway device. However, there are no studies comparing it with the Cobra perilaryngeal airway (CobraPLA™) in pediatric ophthalmic procedures. AIMS: To analyze the intraoperative device stability and ability to maintain normocarbia of CobraPLA™ and compare it to that with flexible LMA™. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ninety children of American Society for Anesthesiologists physical status 1 and 2, aged 3-15 years scheduled for elective ophthalmic surgeries were randomly assigned to either the CobraPLA™ or the flexible LMA™ group. After placement of each airway device, oropharyngeal leak pressure (OLP) was noted. Adequate seal of the devices was confirmed at an inspired pressure of 15 cm H(2)O and pressure-controlled ventilation was initiated. Device displacement was diagnosed if there was a change in capnograph waveform, audible or palpable gas leak, change in expired tidal volume to <8 ml/kg, end-tidal carbon-dioxide persistently >6 kPa, or need to increase inspired pressure to >18 cm H(2)O to maintain normocarbia. RESULTS: Demographic data, duration, and type of surgery in both the groups were similar. A higher incidence of intraoperative device displacement was noted with the CobraPLA™ in comparison to flexible LMA™ (P < 0.001). Incidence of displacement was higher in strabismus surgery (7/12). Insertion characteristics and ventilation parameters were comparable. The OLP was significantly higher in CobraPLA™ group (28 ± 6.8 cm H(2)O) compared to the flexible LMA™ group (19.9 ± 4.5 cm H(2)O) (P < 0.001). Higher surgeon dissatisfaction (65.9%) was seen in the CobraPLA™ group. CONCLUSION: The high incidence of device displacement and surgeon dissatisfaction make CobraPLA™ a less favorable option than flexible LMA™ in ophthalmic surgery.

Intraoperative neurological event during cesarean section under spinal anesthesia with fentanyl and bupivacaine: Case report and review of literature.

Neurological events similar to transient ischemic attack in a peripartum woman are uncommon. Cerebral complications of preeclampsia, thrombo-embolic phenomena, or high spinal can mimic such situations. Spinal anesthesia with local anesthetic and opioid is an established anesthetic technique for cesarean section. Although intrathecal opioids are safe for both the mother and fetus; some unusual complications such as dysphagia alone or associated with facial numbness, aphasia, have been reported. We report a case of transient aphonia and tingling sensation over the face without any dysphagia after intrathecal administration of bupivacaine and fentanyl for cesarean section.

Management of complex regional pain syndrome type I in upper extremity-evaluation of continuous stellate ganglion block and continuous infraclavicular brachial plexus block: a pilot study.

UNLABELLED: Interventional pain management techniques play an important role in the multidisciplinary approach to management of complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). In this preliminary study we compared the efficacy of continuous stellate ganglion (CSG) block with that of continuous infraclavicular brachial plexus (CIBP) block in management of CRPS type I of upper extremity. METHODS: Thirty-three patients with CRPS type I of upper extremity were randomly assigned to either CSG or CIBP group. Patients were treated for 1 week with continuous infusion of 0.125% bupivacaine at 2and 5mL/h, respectively. Catheter was removed at 1 week and patients were followed up for 4 weeks. The outcome was evaluated in terms of neuropathic pain scale score (NPSS), edema scores (Grades 0-2), and range of motion (ROM) of all upper extremity joints (Grades 0-2). RESULTS: CIBP group showed statistically significant improvement in NPSS compared with CSG group during the first 12 hours after the procedures (P value <0.05). After 12 hours, the NPSS was comparable between the groups. At 4 weeks, both groups showed clinically significant improvement in edema score and ROM of all upper extremity joints when compared with the baseline. CONCLUSION: This preliminary study suggests that CIBP block and CSG block may be feasible and effective interventional techniques for the management of CRPS type I of upper extremities. Hence, we recommend a larger well-randomized, well-controlled, clinical trial to confirm our findings and determine if any significant difference exists between the groups in terms of long-term pain relief and functional restoration.

Ketamine as an adjuvant in sympathetic blocks for management of central sensitization following peripheral nerve injury.

UNLABELLED: Proliferation of NMDA receptors and role of glutamate in producing central sensitization and 'wind up' phenomena in CRPS [complex regional pain syndrome] forms a strong basis for the use of Ketamine to block the cellular mechanisms that initiate and maintain these changes. In this case series, we describe 3 patients of CRPS Type II with debilitating central sensitization, heat/mechano allodynia and cognitive symptoms that we termed 'vicarious pain'. Each of these patients had dramatic relief with addition of Ketamine as an adjuvant to the sympathetic blocks after conventional therapy failed. CASE REPORTS: All 3 patients suffered gunshot wounds and developed characteristic features of CRPS Type II. Within 2-3 weeks they developed extraterritorial symptoms typical of central sensitization. The generalized mechanical allodynia and debilitating heat allodynia described to be rare in human subjects had life altering affect on their daily life. Case 2 and 3 also described an unusual cognitive phenomenon i.e. visual stimuli of friction would evoke severe pain in the affected limb that we have termed as 'vicarious pain'. They responded positively to sympathetic blocks but the sympatholysis did not bring relief to the heat and mechanical allodynia. Addition of Ketamine 0.5 mg/kg to the sympathetic blocks elicited resulted in marked relief in the allodynia. CONCLUSION: Ketamine has a special role in patients with debilitating heat allodynia and positive cognitive symptoms via its action on central pain pathway. As an adjuvant in sympatholytic blocks it has a targeted action without significant neuropsychiatric side effects.

Laparoscopic nephroplication and nephropexy as an adjunct to pyeloplasty in UPJO with giant hydronephrosis.

Giant hydronephrosis due to uretero-pelvic junction obstruction (UPJO) is rare and usually the treatment is nephrectomy. When renal salvage is required, reconstruction of the UPJ alone is usually inadequate to improve drainage from the pelvicalyceal system. Various open surgical techniques have been described to improve gravity-assisted drainage from the giant hydronephrotic kidney. We describe, for the first time, a complete laparoscopic approach for pyeloplasty combined with nephroplication and nephropexy.