Antagonistic regulation of Dlx2 expression by PITX2 and Msx2: implications for tooth development.

The transcriptional mechanisms underlying tooth development are only beginning to be understood. Pitx2, a bicoid-like homeodomain transcription factor, is the first transcriptional marker observed during tooth development. Because Pitx2, Msx2, and Dlx2 are expressed in the dental epithelium, we examined the transcriptional activity of PITX2 in concert with Msx2 and the Dlx2 promoter. PITX2 activated while Msx2 unexpectedly repressed transcription of a TK-Bicoid luciferase reporter in a tooth epithelial cell line (LS-8) and CHO cell line. Surprisingly, Msx2 binds to the bicoid element (5'-TAATCC-3') with a high specificity and competes with PITX2 for binding to this element. PITX2 binds to bicoid and bicoid-like elements in the Dlx2 promoter and activates this promoter 45-fold in CHO cells. However, it is only modestly activated in the LS-8 tooth epithelial cell line that endogenously expresses Msx2 and Pitx2. RT-PCR and Western blot assays reveal that two Pitx2 isoforms are expressed in the LS-8 cells. We further demonstrate that PITX2 dimerization can occur through the C-terminus of PITX2. Msx2 represses the Dlx2 promoter in CHO cells and coexpression of both PITX2 and Msx2 resulted in transcriptional antagonism of the Dlx2 promoter. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays demonstrate that factors in the LS-8 cell line specifically interact with PITX2. Thus, Dlx2 gene transcription is regulated by antagonistic effects between PITX2, Msx2, and factors expressed in the tooth epithelia.

Targeted elimination of zygotic messages in Xenopus laevis embryos by modified oligonucleotides possessing terminal cationic linkages.

We have designed a new class of modified antisense oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODN) consisting of a central contiguous stretch of 6-8 unmodified nucleotides flanked by 3'- and 5'-regions containing several nucleotides joined by cationic internucleoside linkages. The positive charge results from modification of the internucleoside linkages as N, N -diethylethylene-diamine phosphoramidates. These zwitterionic compounds show improved antisense activity in both Xenopus oocytes and embryos compared to our previously described chimeric oligonucleotides possessing neutral terminal internucleoside linkages. Using the localized maternal mRNA An2 as a target, we have shown that chimeric oligonucleotides with terminal positive charges are very effective in the sequence-specific elimination of maternal messages present in both oocytes and embryos. In addition, using the embryonic mRNA GS17 as a target, we have shown that these oligonucleotides can direct RNase H-mediated cleavage of messages produced at the onset of zygotic transcription, after the mid-blastula stage. These new compounds should be useful in attenuating embryonic gene expression to study the role of specific proteins in early vertebrate development.

Multifunctional role of the Pitx2 homeodomain protein C-terminal tail.

Pitx2 is a newly described bicoid-like homeodomain transcription factor that is defective in Rieger syndrome and shows a striking leftward developmental asymmetry. We have previously shown that Pitx2 (also called Ptx2 and RIEG) transactivates a reporter gene containing a bicoid enhancer and synergistically transactivates the prolactin promoter in the presence of the POU homeodomain protein Pit-1. In this report, we focused on the C-terminal region which is mutated in some Rieger patients and contains a highly conserved 14-amino-acid element. Deletion analysis of Pitx2 revealed that the C-terminal 39-amino-acid tail represses DNA binding activity and is required for Pitx2-Pit-1 interaction and Pit-1 synergism. Pit-1 interaction with the Pitx2 C terminus masks the inhibitory effect and promotes increased DNA binding activity. Interestingly, cotransfection of an expression vector encoding the C-terminal 39 amino acids of Pitx2 specifically inhibits Pitx2 transactivation activity. In contrast, the C-terminal 39-amino-acid peptide interacts with Pitx2 to increase its DNA binding activity. These data suggest that the C-terminal tail intrinsically inhibits the Pitx2 protein and that this inhibition can be overcome by interaction with other transcription factors to allow activation during development.

Transcriptional antagonism between Hmx1 and Nkx2.5 for a shared DNA-binding site.

The recently described Hmx family of homeodomain proteins is predominately expressed in discrete regions of developing sensory tissues. In this report, we have identified the preferred DNA-binding site of the murine Hmx3 homeodomain protein by the selection and amplification binding (SAAB) technique. The consensus Hmx-binding site contained the sequence 5'-CAAGTG-3', which differs from the 5'-TAAT-3' motif commonly associated with homeodomain proteins. Instead, the Hmx consensus is similar to the 5'-CAAGTG-3'-binding sites of Nkx2.1 and Nkx2.5 homeodomain proteins. Based on mutation studies, both the 5'-CAAG-3' core and the 3'-TG dinucleotide are required for high affinity binding by Hmx3 and the homologous Hmx1 protein. A critical determinant of this specificity is the glutamine at position 50 in the third helix of the Hmx homeodomain. Hmx1 binds to the 5'-CAAGTG-3' element with an apparent dissociation constant of 20 nM. Unexpectedly, the human Hmx1 protein specifically repressed transcription from a luciferase reporter gene containing 3 copies of the 5'-CAAGTG-3' sequence. In contrast, the Nkx2.5 protein transactivated this luciferase reporter. Interestingly, co-expression of Hmx1 and Nkx2.5 attenuated each others activity, suggesting that genes containing the CAAGTG element can integrate signals from these proteins. Therefore, Hmx1 and Nkx2. 5 proteins bind a unique DNA sequence and act as transcriptional antagonists.

The molecular basis of Rieger syndrome. Analysis of Pitx2 homeodomain protein activities.

Rieger syndrome is an autosomal-dominant developmental disorder that includes glaucoma and mild craniofacial dysmorphism in humans. Mutations in the Pitx2 homeobox gene have been linked to Rieger syndrome. We have characterized wild type and mutant Pitx2 activities using electrophoretic mobility shift assays, protein binding, and transient transfection assays. Pitx2 preferentially binds the bicoid homeodomain binding site and transactivates reporter genes containing this site. The combination of Pitx2 and another homeodomain protein, Pit-1, yielded a synergistic 55-fold activation of the prolactin promoter in transfection assays. Addition of Pit-1 increased Pitx2 binding to the bicoid element in electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Furthermore, we demonstrate specific binding of Pit-1 to Pitx2 in vitro. Thus, wild type Pitx2 DNA binding activity is modulated by protein-protein interactions. We next studied two Rieger mutants. A threonine to proline mutation (T68P) in the second helix of the homeodomain retained DNA binding activity with the same apparent KD and only about a 2-fold reduction in the Bmax. However, this mutant did not transactivate reporter genes containing the bicoid site. The mutant Pitx2 protein binds Pit-1, but there was no detectable synergism on the prolactin promoter. A second mutation (L54Q) in a highly conserved residue in helix 1 of the homeodomain yielded an unstable protein. Our results provide insights into the potential mechanisms underlying the developmental defects in Rieger syndrome.