Success or failure? Pathologists persecuted under National Socialism and their careers after emigrating to the United States.

This study examines the biographies of pathologists persecuted by the National Socialists after their emigration from the German Reich to the USA. The work is based on primary sources from various archives and a systematic evaluation of secondary literature on the persons concerned. The study yields five central results: (1) Out of 118 identified persecuted pathologists, a total of 91 persons left the German Reich, 60 of them demonstrably to the USA. (2) The majority of the pathologists immigrated to the USA between 1938 and 1941. (3) A good two thirds of the pathologists were (again) employed in the USA as university teachers, the majority in the leading position of Full Professor. (4) The preferred area of employment was the East Coast of the USA. (5) The labor market situation was particularly favorable for specialized pathologists. It can be concluded that the majority of the emigrated pathologists studied succeeded in continuing or even expanding their professional careers in the USA, with existing academic networks playing a noticeable role. Pathology thus occupies a special position in the context of the migration history of persecuted physicians under National Socialism.

Edgar von Gierke (1877-1945) - Eponym of "von Gierke disease" and double victim of National Socialism.

As recent studies on the Third Reich have shown, a two-digit number of Jewish pathologists fell victim to National Socialist repression. One of them was Edgar von Gierke. His name is nowadays best known in medicine for discovering the "von Gierke disease" - also classified as "Glycogen storage disease type I" - which he first described in 1929. This article deals with the role of von Gierke as a persecuted and disenfranchised Jew. Accordingly, the focus is on von Gierke's repressive experiences in the Third Reich, which were quite different from other cases. It is based on (1) previously partly unnoticed archival sources and (2) a re-analysis of the relevant research literature. The paper shows that Edgar von Gierke was a double victim of Nazi Germany, even though he was able to maintain his professional position for a comparatively long time: In contrast to other Jews who were dismissed in 1933 on the basis of the "Aryan paragraph", von Gierke benefited from a legal exception as a decorated front fighter in the First World War. It was not until 1937 that he was released from public service. Even more striking is the fact that von Gierke was ordered back to his old position twice between 1939 and 1944 due to a lack of personnel. The evaluation of archival files leads to the conclusion that von Gierke was recalled to work under pressure from leading National Socialists and that this ordered reappointment had a devastating effect on his health status. At that time the pathologist was already suffering from a progressive heart disease, to which he succumbed in autumn 1945 - fatally only a few month after the fall of the Third Reich.

Disfranchisement, expulsion and persecution of pathologists in the Third Reich - A sociodemographic study.

This sociodemographic study focuses on the disenfranchisement, expulsion and persecution of pathologists in the Third Reich - a group that has, until now, received little systematic attention in scholarly research. The paper attempts to determine the number of pathologists who suffered persecution, the characteristics they shared, and the effects the repression had on their lives - both in the period from 1933 to 1945 and in the post-war period. The study is based on primary sources from numerous archives as well as on a systematic re-analysis of published secondary literature on the history of Nazi medicine. A total of 89 disenfranchised pathologists were identified and have been included. The vast majority of these pathologists (90%) were persecuted due to their Jewish ancestry or their relation to Jews. A good two-thirds of these pathologists were employed at a university until their disenfranchisement. For two-thirds of these pathologists (n = 62; 70%), documentation of emigration was found. Twenty-four pathologists remained in their home country; of these, five died in concentration camps and two others committed suicide. The preferred country for direct immigration was the United States (n = 19), followed by Great Britain (n = 13). Most of these pathologists were able to establish themselves professionally in their destination country, and little inclination to return to Germany after 1945 was shown. The reasons for this were a lack of career options in their home country, the lack of a welcoming culture among colleagues and universities, and the stigmatizing experiences of individual pathologists had during academic appointments and reparations proceedings in Germany. However, especially in recent decades and in part posthumously, these pathologists are being granted honorary, intangible recognition in Germany and Austria. Even though this recognition can no longer provide tangible reparations, it is nevertheless a sign of a gradual change in consciousness.

"Jüdisch versippt" and "materialistic": The marginalization of Walther E. Berblinger (1882-1966) in the Third Reich.

The pathologist Walther Berblinger (1882-1966) became famous for his scientific studies on internal secretion, namely on the pathology of the pituitary and the pineal gland. The results of his research on the hormonal control of the reproductive system contributed significantly to the consolidation of the young discipline of endocrinology. His later pioneering work on the use of chemotherapeutics in tuberculosis was similarly important. Despite his "Aryan" ancestry, Berblinger was targeted by the National Socialists and forced to emigrate to Switzerland due to the pressure of political events - a fact that has only been partially investigated by researchers to date. Accordingly, this essay focuses on Berblinger's professional exclusion and on the implications and consequences associated with it. It also examines why Berblinger decided not to return to Germany after 1945. Primary documents from the University Archives Jena and the Main State Archives Weimar served as the central source for this study; they were supplemented and compared with the research literature available to date on Walther Berblinger and on the history of pathology and medicine under National Socialism. The study documents that Berblinger - unlike his Jewish colleagues - was initially able to continue his career in the Third Reich almost without restriction, but was dismissed from service when he refused to separate from his Jewish wife in 1937. Subsequently, the National Socialists' victimization of Berlinger even reached him in Swiss exile. Notwithstanding the hostile treatment and harassment from Germany, Berblinger succeeded in continuing his scientific career in Switzerland. After 1945, he decided against remigration - not least because negative experiences with German authorities made led him doubt the rule of law in post-war Germany. It was not until the last phase of his life that Berblinger was "rediscovered" by his homeland, as is shown by a series of late honors.

" a life broken in two" Walter Pagel (1898-1983)-Famous pathologist and victim of Nazi Germany.

There is no doubt that Walter Pagel (1898-1983) is one of the most outstanding figures in the history of pathology. Not only his fundamental research on tuberculosis and various other fields of pathology but also his historicomedical publications set international standards and earned him numerous honors throughout the scientific world. Far less known is the fact that Pagel, as a German Jew, was one of the victims of the "Third Reich": He was dismissed from his job in Heidelberg, felt forced to emigrate in 1933 and fought for reparation after 1945. Accordingly, this article deals with Pagel's role and fate as a politically persecuted and disenfranchised Jew. It focuses on the general circumstances of his dismissal and forced emigration, but also on Pagel's treatment in post-war Germany. In addition, the influences of this biographical break on Pagel's further research career are investigated. The study is based on archival sources and on a re-analysis of the relevant research literature. It points out that Pagel's emigration took place under difficult circumstances and without clear job prospects. Enormous discipline and mental strength as well as successful networking with supporting mentors allowed Pagel to continue his career in his exile country of England despite poor health. The way in which Pagel was treated in post-war Germany, on the other hand, was less satisfactory: the University of Heidelberg did not offer him any prospect of employment and the "reparation procedure" ("Wiedergutmachungsverfahren") resulted in only small pension payments. Instead, Pagel was awarded an honorary doctorate at his home university in 1966. Of the numerous "stumbling blocks" (n = 183) laid in Heidelberg, not one reminds us of Walter Pagel to date.