Inducing Inorganic Carbon Accrual in Subsoil through Biochar Application on Calcareous Topsoil.

Biochar amendments add persistent organic carbon to soil and can stabilize rhizodeposits and existing soil organic carbon (SOC), but effects of biochar on subsoil carbon stocks have been overlooked. We quantified changes in soil inorganic carbon (SIC) and SOC to 2 m depth 10 years after biochar application to calcareous soil. The total soil carbon (i.e., existing SOC, SIC, and biochar-C) increased by 71, 182, and 210% for B30, B60, and B90, respectively. Biochar application at 30, 60, and 90 t ha-1 rates significantly increased SIC by 10, 38, and 68 t ha-1, respectively, with accumulation mainly occurring in the subsoil (below 1 m). This huge increase of SIC (mainly CaCO3) is ∼100 times larger than the inorganic carbon present in the added biochar (0.3, 0.6, or 0.9 t ha-1). The benzene polycarboxylic acid method showed that the biochar-amended soil contained more black carbon particles (6.8 times higher than control soil) in the depth of 1.4-1.6 m, which provided the direct quantitative evidence for biochar migration into subsoil after a decade. Spectral and energy spectrum analysis also showed an obvious biochar structure in the biochar-amended subsoil, accompanied by a Ca/Mg carbonate cluster, which provided further evidence for downward migration of biochar after a decade. To explain SIC accumulation in subsoil with biochar amendment, the interacting mechanisms are proposed: (1) biochar amendment significantly increases subsoil pH (0.3-0.5 units) 10 years after biochar application, thus forming a favorable pH environment in the subsoil to precipitate HCO3-; and (2) the transported biochar in subsoil can act as nuclei to precipitate SIC. Biochar amendment enhanced SIC by up to 80%; thus, the effects on carbon stocks in subsoil must be understood to inform strategies for carbon dioxide removal through biochar application. Our study provided critical knowledge on the impact of biochar application to topsoil on carbon stocks in subsoil in the long term.

Biochar-based fertiliser enhances nutrient uptake and transport in rice seedlings.

Biochar-based compound fertilisers (BCF) are gaining increasing attention as they are cost-effectiveness and improve soil fertility and crop yield. However, little is known about the mechanisms by which micron-size BCF particles enhance crop growth. In the present study, Wuyunjing7 rice seedlings were exposed to micron-size particles of wheat straw-based BCF (mBCF) diffused through a 25-µm nylon mesh. The control was fertilised with urea, diammonium phosphate, and potassium chloride to ensure that both treatments received comparables level of N, P, and K. The effects of mBCF on rice seedling growth were evaluated by determining the changes in nitrogen uptake and utilisation via nitrogen content measurements, short-term 15N-NH4+ influx assays, and analyses of transcript-level nutrient transporter gene expression. The shoot biomass of rice seedling treated with mBCF at the rate of 5 mg/ g soil was 33% greater than that for the control. Root and shoot 15N accumulation rates were 44% and 14% higher, respectively, in the mBCF-treated than the control. The mBCF-treated rice seedlings had higher phosphorus, potassium, and iron content than the control. Moreover, the treatments significantly differed in terms of their nutrient transporter gene expression levels. Spectroscopy and microscopy were used to visualise nutrient distributions across transverse root sections. There were relatively higher iron oxide nanoparticle and silicon-based compound concentrations in the roots of the mBCF-treated rice seedlings than in those of the control. The foregoing difference might account for the fact that the growth of the mBCF-treated rice was superior to that of the control. We demonstrated that the mBCF treatment created a more negative electrical potential at the root epidermal cell layer (~ - 160 mV) than the root surface. This potential difference may have been the driving force for mineral nutrient absorption.

Rice Seedling Growth Promotion by Biochar Varies With Genotypes and Application Dosages.

While biochar use in agriculture is widely advocated, how the effect of biochar on plant growth varies with biochar forms and crop genotypes is poorly addressed. The role of dissolvable organic matter (DOM) in plant growth has been increasingly addressed for crop production with biochar. In this study, a hydroponic culture of rice seedling growth of two cultivars was treated with bulk mass (DOM-containing), water extract (DOM only), and extracted residue (DOM-free) of maize residue biochar, at a volumetric dosage of 0.01, 0.05, and 0.1%, respectively. On seedling root growth of the two cultivars, bulk biochar exerted a generally negative effect, while the biochar extract had a consistently positive effect across the application dosages. Differently, the extracted biochar showed a contrasting effect between genotypes. In another hydroponic culture with Wuyunjing 7 treated with biochar extract at sequential dosages, seedling growth was promoted by 95% at 0.01% dosage but by 26% at 0.1% dosage, explained with the great promotion of secondary roots rather than of primary roots. Such effects were likely explained by low molecular weight organic acids and nanoparticles contained in the biochar DOM. This study highlights the importance of biochar DOM and crop genotype when evaluating the effect of biochar on plants. The use of low dosage of biochar DOM could help farmers to adopt biochar technology as a solution for agricultural sustainability.

Advanced characterization of biomineralization at plaque layer and inside rice roots amended with iron- and silica-enhanced biochar.

Application of iron (Fe)- and silica (Si)-enhanced biochar compound fertilisers (BCF) stimulates rice yield by increasing plant uptake of mineral nutrients. With alterations of the nutrient status in roots, element homeostasis (e.g., Fe) in the biochar-treated rice root was related to the formation of biominerals on the plaque layer and in the cortex of roots. However, the in situ characteristics of formed biominerals at the micron and sub-micron scale remain unknown. In this study, rice seedlings (Oryza sativa L.) were grown in paddy soil treated with BCF and conventional fertilizer, respectively, for 30 days. The biochar-induced changes in nutrient accumulation in roots, and the elemental composition, distribution and speciation of the biomineral composites formed in the biochar-treated roots at the micron and sub-micron scale, were investigated by a range of techniques. Results of laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) showed that biochar treatment significantly increased concentrations of nutrients (e.g., Fe, Si, and P) inside the root. Raman mapping and vibrating sample magnetometry identified biochar particles and magnetic Fe nanoparticles associated with the roots. With Fe plaque formation, higher concentrations of FeOx- and FeOxH- anions on the root surface than the interior were detected by time-of-flight secondary ionization mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS). Analysis of data from scanning electron microscopy energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and from scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) coupled with EDS or energy electron loss spectroscopy (EELS), determined that Fe(III) oxide nanoparticles were accumulated in the crystalline fraction of the plaque and were co-localized with Si and P on the root surface. Iron-rich nanoparticles (Fe-Si nanocomposites with mixed oxidation states of Fe and ferritin) in the root cortex were identified by using aberration-corrected STEM and in situ EELS analysis, confirming the biomineralization and storage of Fe in the rice root. The findings from this study highlight that the deposition of Fe-rich nanocomposites occurs with contrasting chemical speciation in the Fe plaque and cortex of the rice root. This provides an improved understanding of the element homeostasis in rice with biochar-mineral fertilization.

Mineral nitrogen captured in field-aged biochar is plant-available.

Biochar may serve as a tool to sustainably mitigate climate change via carbon sequestration and by improving soil fertility. Biochar has shown to retain nitrate in its pores, which increases with an organic coating of the inner surfaces and residence time in soil ("aging"). Here we investigated the plant accessibility of the captured nitrate in field-aged biochar, as a pre-requisite for developing carbon-based N fertilization techniques with environmental benefits. Based on previous results, we hypothesized that part of the biochar-captured nitrate would remain unavailable for plants. A two-factorial greenhouse experiment was designed, where the N was applied either as Ca(NO3)2 or as N captured in field-aged biochar at five increasing N doses to quinoa and perennial ryegrass in pots. Interestingly, the biochar-captured N was as plant available as the mineral nitrate, except for the highest dosage. Refuting our hypothesis, no significant amounts of N were extractable at the end of the study from the biochar-soil mixtures with repeated-extraction protocols. Thus, N captured by biochar may improve the N use efficiency in agriculture. Further research should evaluate the role of biochar particle size, root morphology, mycorrhization, and soil moisture (variations) for nitrate retrieval from biochar particles by plants because the captured biochar N was less available in the field as under present controlled conditions.

Wheat straw vinegar: A more cost-effective solution than chemical fungicides for sustainable wheat plant protection.

Fusarium head blight (FHB), caused by the fungal pathogen Fusarium graminearum, is a destructive and widespread wheat disease. Chemical fungicides are becoming less effective at reducing the disease severity of FHB, and there is a need to find a more effective, low-cost natural product. A by-product of the pyrolysis of wheat straw is a condensate known as wheat straw vinegar, which was hypothesized to be an effective F. graminearum inhibitor in wheat. The organic and mineral compositions of wheat straw vinegar were analyzed. The results of GC-MS indicated that the major organic compounds in wheat straw vinegar are phenolics and acetic acid. The main inorganic elements in the liquid were K, Ca, S and Mg. A bio-test of wheat straw vinegar showed strong antifungal activity on F. graminearum growth and production of deoxynivalenol (DON) with an EC50 (concentration for 50% of maximal effect) value of 3.1 µl ml-1. Field tests showed that the application of wheat straw vinegar diluted 200-fold significantly decreased the wheat FHB infection rate and DON content by 66% and 69%, respectively. The control efficacy of wheat straw vinegar at a dilution of 200-fold was similar to that of typical chemical fungicide applications. The use of wheat straw vinegar may increase farmers' income by reducing the net fungicide costs. Therefore, wheat straw vinegar has high potential as a natural fungicide for the control of FHB and can reduce the dependence on synthetic fungicides.

Biochar increases soil organic carbon, avocado yields and economic return over 4 years of cultivation.

The use of biochar in avocado orchard soils has not yet been investigated in rigorous scientific experiments. We determine the effect of wood biochar on avocado growth, fruit production and economic benefit. Biochar was applied at 0%, 5%, 10% and 20% volume by volume basis. Biochar significantly improved the growth of avocado seedlings and increased fruit yield in the first three years after planting. There was an overall increase in soil carbon, fruit yield, tree diameter and height in all biochar treatments relative to the control over the seasons. Trees planted with biochar had 18-26% greater growth rates (in terms of height and stem diameter) than the control. Tree diameter was significantly greater with biochar (145.4 ± 3.3 mm) relative to the control treatment (125.0 ± 2.7 mm). Tree height was also significantly greater with biochar (3.7 ± 0.1 m) relative to the control treatment (3.4 ± 0.1 m). The fruit count from the biochar row was significantly greater (97%) in 2018. Heavy bearing trees typically have a lower yield in the subsequent year but despite this, the 2019 fruit counts were higher in aggregate for the biochar amended trees (20%) relative to the control. A cost-benefit analysis indicated that if yield surplus of fruit trees continued for three years, and assuming avocado prices remain at similar levels, then the discounted net benefit over a hectare would amount to US$8581, or US$105 per metric tonne of biochar applied.

The effect of biochar, lime and ash on maize yield in a long-term field trial in a Ultisol in the humid tropics.

A multi-season field trial was carried out to investigate the effect of the amendment of biochar, lime, ash and washed biochar on the growth of maize. A degraded, strongly acidic Ultisol (pHKCl 3.60), with a relatively high exchangeable aluminium content (2.4 cmolc/kg) and a low exchangeable calcium content (0.99 cmolc/kg), was used. Soil was treated once at the beginning of the field trial and crop growth was monitored over seven planting seasons (PS). All treatments increased maize yield. The average increases were; seven times for biochar, five times for lime, five times for washed biochar and eight times for ash treatment, when compared to the control across all PS. The effect of biochar, lime and ash treatments on maize yield were sustained over the seven PS. Soil pHKCl was significantly increased (p < 0.05 level) following the addition of all of the amendment materials. All treatments significantly reduced the concentration of Al3+ when compared to the control (p < 0.05), with the lowest concentrations for the lime and ash treatments. The ash treatment also increased the concentration of macronutrients (K, P and Mg) to the greatest extent. Results showed that there was a clear liming effect at play. The better performance of biochar compared to lime, despite lime having the highest pH and the lowest Al3+ concentration, can be explained by the additional K, Mg and P the biochar adds to the soil. Results also showed a clear nutrient addition effect where ash added the most nutrients. Overall, this work supports the fact that small scale farmers in Indonesia should produce biochar from their waste agricultural materials. Doing so not only provides an increase in crop productivity, but also sequesters carbon resulting in the best overall environmental benefit.

Biochar-based fertilizer: Supercharging root membrane potential and biomass yield of rice.

Biochar-based compound fertilizers (BCF) and amendments have proven to enhance crop yields and modify soil properties (pH, nutrients, organic matter, structure etc.) and are now in commercial production in China. While there is a good understanding of the changes in soil properties following biochar addition, the interactions within the rhizosphere remain largely unstudied, with benefits to yield observed beyond the changes in soil properties alone. We investigated the rhizosphere interactions following the addition of an activated wheat straw BCF at an application rates of 0.25% (g·g-1 soil), which could potentially explain the increase of plant biomass (by 67%), herbage N (by 40%) and P (by 46%) uptake in the rice plants grown in the BCF-treated soil, compared to the rice plants grown in the soil with conventional fertilizer alone. Examination of the roots revealed that micron and submicron-sized biochar were embedded in the plaque layer. BCF increased soil Eh by 85 mV and increased the potential difference between the rhizosphere soil and the root membrane by 65 mV. This increased potential difference lowered the free energy required for root nutrient accumulation, potentially explaining greater plant nutrient content and biomass. We also demonstrate an increased abundance of plant-growth promoting bacteria and fungi in the rhizosphere. We suggest that the redox properties of the biochar cause major changes in electron status of rhizosphere soils that drive the observed agronomic benefits.

Biochar bound urea boosts plant growth and reduces nitrogen leaching.

Over use of N fertilizers, most commonly as urea, had been seriously concerned as a major source of radiative N (Nr) for severe environment impacts through leaching, volatilization, and N2O emission from fertilized croplands. It had been well known that biochar could enhance N retention and use efficiency by crops in amended croplands. In this study, a granular biochar-mineral urea composite (Bio-MUC) was obtained by blending urea with green waste biochar supplemented with clay minerals of bentonite and sepiolite. This Bio-MUC material was firstly characterized by microscopic analyses with FTIR, SEM-EDS and STEM, subsequently tested for N leaching in water in column experiment and for N supply for maize in pot culture, compared to conventional urea fertilizer (UF). Microscopic analyses indicated binding of urea N to particle surfaces of biochar and clay minerals in the Bio-MUC composite. In the leaching experiment over 30 days, cumulative N release as NH4+-N and of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) was significantly smaller by >70% and by 8% from the Bio-MUC than from UF. In pot culture with maize growing for 50 days, total fresh shoot was enhanced by 14% but fresh root by 25% under Bio-MUC compared to UF. This study suggested that N in the Bio-MUC was shown slow releasing in water but maize growth promoting in soil, relative to conventional urea. Such effect could be related mainly to N retention by binding to biochar/mineral surfaces and partly by carbon bonds of urea to biochar in the Bio-MUC. Therefore, biochar from agro-wastes could be used for blending urea as combined organo/mineral urea to replace mineral urea so as to reduce N use and impacts on global Nr. Of course, how such biochar combined urea would impact N process in soil-plant systems deserve further field studies.

Biochar DOM for plant promotion but not residual biochar for metal immobilization depended on pyrolysis temperature.

While biochar on metal immobilization was well understood, a small pool of dissolvable organic matter (DOM) from biochar was recently recognized as a bioactive agent for plant growth promotion. However, how the molecular composition and plant effects of this fraction and the performance for metal immobilization of the DOM-removed biochar could vary with pyrolysis temperature had been not well addressed. In this study, wheat straw biochar pyrolyzed at a temperature of 350 °C, 450 °C, 550 °C were extracted with hot water to separate the DOM fraction. The obtained biochar extracts (BE350, BE450, and BE550) were tested as foliar amendment to Chinese cabbage while the extracted (DOM-removed) biochars were tested for heavy metal immobilization in a contaminated soil. The results showed that BE350 was higher in organic matter content, abundance of organic molecules and mineral nutrients than BE450 and BE550. Compared to control, foliar application of BE350 significantly enhanced the shoot biomass (by 89%), increased leaf soluble sugar content (by 83%) but reduced leaf content of nitrate (by 34%) and of potential toxic metals (by 49% for Cd and by 30% for Pb). Moreover, BE350 treatment increased gene expression of nitrate reductase and glutamine synthetase enzyme activity of the tested plant. Meanwhile, soil amendment of DOM-extracted biochars significantly decreased soil CaCl2 extractable pool of Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn in a range of 27%-78%. Thus, the performance of DOM extract of biochar on plant growth promotion was indeed dependent of pyrolysis temperature, being greater at 350 °C than at higher temperatures. In contrast, metal immobilizing capacity of biochar was regardless of pyrolysis temperature and DOM removal. Therefore, pyrolyzing wheat straw at low temperature could produce a biochar for valorized separation of a significant DOM pool for use in vegetable production, leaving the residual biochar for amendment to metal contaminated soil.

Immobilization of heavy metals in contaminated soil after mining activity by using biochar and other industrial by-products: the significant role of minerals on the biochar surfaces.

Heavy metal contamination of crop lands surrounding mines in North Vietnam is a major environmental issue for both farmers and the population as a whole. Technology for the production of biochar at a village and household level has been successfully introduced into Vietnamese villages. This study was undertaken to determine if rice straw biochar produced in simple drum ovens could remediate contaminated land. Tests were also carried out to determine if biochar and apatite mixed together could be more effective than biochar alone. Incubation trials were carried out over 90 days in pots to determine the total changes in exchangeable Cd, Pb and Zn. Detailed tests were carried out to determine the mechanisms that bound the heavy metals to the biochar. It was found that biochar at 5% (BC5) and the mixture of biochar and apatite at 3% (BCA3) resulted in the greatest reduction of exchangeable forms of Cd, Pb and Zn. The increase in soil pH caused by adding biochar and apatite created more negative charge on the soil surface that promoted Pb, Zn and Cd adsorption. Heavy metals were mainly bound in the organic, Fe/Mn and carbonate fractions of the biochar and the mixture of biochar and apatite by either ion exchange, adsorption, dissolution/precipitation and through substitution of cations in large organic molecules.

Organic coating on biochar explains its nutrient retention and stimulation of soil fertility.

Amending soil with biochar (pyrolized biomass) is suggested as a globally applicable approach to address climate change and soil degradation by carbon sequestration, reducing soil-borne greenhouse-gas emissions and increasing soil nutrient retention. Biochar was shown to promote plant growth, especially when combined with nutrient-rich organic matter, e.g., co-composted biochar. Plant growth promotion was explained by slow release of nutrients, although a mechanistic understanding of nutrient storage in biochar is missing. Here we identify a complex, nutrient-rich organic coating on co-composted biochar that covers the outer and inner (pore) surfaces of biochar particles using high-resolution spectro(micro)scopy and mass spectrometry. Fast field cycling nuclear magnetic resonance, electrochemical analysis and gas adsorption demonstrated that this coating adds hydrophilicity, redox-active moieties, and additional mesoporosity, which strengthens biochar-water interactions and thus enhances nutrient retention. This implies that the functioning of biochar in soil is determined by the formation of an organic coating, rather than biochar surface oxidation, as previously suggested.

Characterization of organic compounds in biochars derived from municipal solid waste.

Municipal solid waste (MSW) generation has been growing in many countries, which has led to numerous environmental problems. Converting MSW into a valuable biochar-based by-product can manage waste and, possibly, improve soil fertility, depending on the soil properties. In this study, MSW-based biochars, collected from domestic waste materials and kerbsides in two Sydney's regions, were composted and pyrolysed at 450°C, 550°C and 650°C. The characteristics of the organic components and their interactions with mineral phases were investigated using a range of analytical techniques, with special attention given to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metal concentrations. The MSW biochar prepared at 450°C contained the most complex organic compounds. The highest concentration of fixed C, indicating the stability of biochar, was detected in the high-temperature-biochar. Microscopic analysis showed development of pores and migration of mineral phases, mainly Ca/P/O-rich phases, into the micro-pores and Si/Al/O-rich phases on the surface of the biochar in the MSW biochar produced at 550°C. Amalgamation of organic phases with mineral compounds was observed, at higher pyrolysis temperatures, indicating chemical reactions between these two phases at 650°C. XPS analysis showed the main changes occurred in C and N bonds. During heat treatment, N-C/C=N functionalities decomposed and oxidized N configurations, mainly pyridine-N-oxide groups, were formed. The majority of the dissolved organic carbon fraction in both MSW biochar produced at 450°C and 550°C was in the form of building blocks, whereas LMW acids was the main fraction in high-temperature-biochar (59.9%).