Development of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire-55 abbreviated research scales.

The Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ) is a normal range inventory for assessing a variety of empirically derived primary traits. These trait scores can be differentially weighted to estimate higher-order broad dimensions such as Positive Emotionality (PEM), Negative Emotionality (NEM), and Constraint (CON). However, broad trait scores are estimated using proprietary regression equations and necessitate near complete administration of the inventory. We aimed to increase measurement efficiency by creating abbreviated item-based approximations of these weighted scores. To parsimoniously delineate and differentiate the broad traits, classical test theory and item response theory approaches were used to identify five items from each primary trait scale approximating the weighted estimates while also maintaining the breadth of MPQ content coverage. Initial scale development relied on the MPQ-276 (standard form) normative sample (n = 1,237), which was followed by cross-validation using two samples of twins and cotwins from the Minnesota Twin Family Study (n = 1,304, n = 1,305). Additional validation was conducted using a third sample of undergraduate students (n = 201).The resulting item-based scales (PEM-20, NEM-15, CON-15) demonstrated strong convergence with the established proprietary broad trait estimates. Furthermore, these abbreviated scales exhibited similar associations with the external measures of personality and psychopathology. Abbreviated item-based scales may have utility for efficient estimation of the same broadband personality dimensions assessed by longer forms of the MPQ. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Factor analysis in psychological assessment research: Common pitfalls and recommendations.

This article provides a summary and discussion of major challenges and pitfalls in factor analysis as observed in psychological assessment research, as well as our recommendations within each of these areas. More specifically, we discuss a need to be more careful about item distribution properties in light of their potential impact on model estimation as well as providing a very strong caution against item parceling in the evaluation of psychological test instruments. Moreover, we consider the important issue of estimation, with a particular emphasis on selecting the most appropriate estimator to match the scaling properties of test item indicators. Next, we turn our attention to the issues of model fit and comparison of alternative models with the strong recommendation to allow for theoretical guidance rather than being overly influenced by model fit indices. In addition, since most models in psychological assessment research involve multidimensional items that often do not map neatly onto a priori confirmatory models, we provide recommendations about model respecification. Finally, we end our article with a discussion of alternative forms of model specification that have become particularly popular recently: exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) and bifactor modeling. We discuss various important areas of consideration for the applied use of these model specifications, with a conclusion that, whereas ESEM models can offer a useful avenue for the evaluation of internal structure of test items, researchers should be very careful about using bifactor models for this purpose. Instead, we highlight other, more appropriate applications of such models. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Further Validation of Triarchic Psychopathy Scales From the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire: Setting the Stage for Large-Sample Etiological Studies.

Psychopathy as conceptualized by the triarchic model encompasses three distinct dispositional constructs: boldness, meanness, and disinhibition. The current study sought to further validate triarchic (Tri) construct scales composed of items from the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ) as a foundation for advancing research on the etiology of psychopathy using existing large-scale longitudinal studies. MPQ-Tri scales were examined in three samples: mixed-gender undergraduate students ( N = 346), male offenders from a residential substance abuse treatment facility ( N = 190), and incarcerated female offenders ( N = 216). Across these three samples, the MPQ-Tri scales demonstrated high internal consistency and clear convergent and discriminant associations with criterion measures of psychopathy and other psychopathology outcomes. Gender comparisons revealed relatively few differences in relationships with criterion measures. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for further investigation of the causal bases of psychopathy and other forms of psychopathology utilizing data from large etiologically informative studies.

Psychometric Examination, Adaptation, and Evaluation of the Hebrew Translation of the MMPI-2-RF VRIN-r and TRIN-r Validity Scales.

In this study we examined the utility of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF; Ben-Porath & Tellegen, 2008/2011; Tellegen & Ben-Porath, 2008/2011) Variable Response Inconsistency-Revised (VRIN-r) and True Response Inconsistency-Revised (TRIN-r) scales, including alternative versions of the scales, in the Hebrew translation of the test. First, we examined the applicability of the U.S. VRIN-r and TRIN-r scales in an Israeli Hebrew-speaking mixed clinical sample, and replaced original item pairs that did not meet the development criteria with substitution item pairs that did. Then, using the Israeli normative sample and a pure clinical sample, we compared the psychometric functioning of the adapted Hebrew-language VRIN-r and TRIN-r scales with that of the original versions of these scales under various conditions of simulated non-content-based (random and fixed) responding. Overall, results showed that the adapted versions of the scales did not improve on the original ones. We therefore recommend using the U.S. VRIN-r and TRIN-r versions, which could also facilitate cross-cultural comparisons.

Dichotomous versus polytomous response options in psychopathology assessment: method or meaningful variance?

In previous studies, researchers have examined the optimal number of response options for psychological questionnaires. Several have reported increased scale score reliabilities, but few have documented improved external validities. In the present investigation, we followed-up on Cox (2011) and Cox et al.'s (2012) extensive analyses of a clinical assessment instrument, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF). We compared the dichotomous (true/false) response format of this inventory with a 4-choice format. Our sample consisted of 406 undergraduate students from a large Midwestern university who were largely female (64.3%), predominantly Caucasian (76.4%), and had a mean age of 19.24 years. Internal-structural analyses confirmed that more response options increase reliabilities, but the effects were small. The differences between correlations with external criteria were very rarely statistically significant, and the few that were did not consistently favor either format. We recommend that in future response-format investigations the internal-structural analyses continue to be combined with evaluations of relevant external correlations.

Development and preliminary validation of a simplified-wording form of the multidimensional personality questionnaire.

The Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ) assesses a range of personality characteristics pertaining to affective and interpersonal style, behavioral restraint versus disinhibition, and capacity for sensory and imaginal engagement. Its 11 lower order trait scales map onto 3 higher order factors that reflect temperament dimensions. Its content and measurement properties have made the MPQ useful for elucidating constructs relevant to normal and abnormal behavior and investigating their neurobiological underpinnings. However, a barrier to its use in certain populations is the reading difficulty of some MPQ items. We describe efforts to develop a simplified-wording form, the MPQ-SF, composed of items readable at or below the seventh grade level (with most below sixth grade). Simplified-wording items demonstrated high convergence with original-wording items, and resulting trait scales showed adequate internal consistencies and appropriate higher order structure. The availability of a simplified version expands the potential utility of the MPQ to a wider range of samples.

Resilience in developmental psychopathology: contributions of the Project Competence Longitudinal Study.

Contributions of the Project Competence Longitudinal Study (PCLS) to resilience science and developmental psychopathology are highlighted in this article. Initiated by Norman Garmezy, the PCLS contributed models, measures, and methods, as well as working definitions of concepts like competence, developmental tasks, protective factors, and resilience. Findings from the study corroborated the feasibility of studying adaptation in a normative group of school children, identifying patterns of resilience, competence without major adversity, and maladaptive paths through life. Competence was multidimensional, showing continuity and change over time. Cascading effects across domains indicated that competence and problems spread over time. Thus, adult achievements in developmental tasks were rooted in childhood and adolescence. Young people who showed resilience had much in common with similarly successful peers who experienced less adversity over time, including high-quality relationships with parents and other adults, and good cognitive, as well as social-emotional, skills. Maladaptive youth in the study often faced high adversity with little adaptive capacity (internal or external) and tended to generate stressful experiences. Resilience often emerged in childhood and endured, but there also were late bloomers whose lives turned around in the transition to adulthood. The role of collaboration and mentorship in the PCLS is also discussed.

Empirical correlates of low scores on MMPI-2/MMPI-2-RF restructured clinical scales in a sample of university students.

In the present study, the authors explored the meaning of low scores on the MMPI-2/MMPI-2-RF restructured clinical (RC) scales. Using responses of a sample of university students (N = 811), the authors examined whether low (T < 39), within-normal-limits (T = 39-64), and high (T > 65) score levels on the RC scales are differentially associated with multidimensional personality questionnaire (MPQ)-defined personality descriptions. Eleven primary MPQ scales and three higher order MPQ scales (negative emotionality, positive emotionality, and constraint) were used to yield these descriptions. MANOVAs were conducted for each RC scale and followed up by univariate ANOVAs and post hoc Dunnett T3 tests to identify reliable RC-scale-defined group differences for the individual MPQ scales. For those cases that exhibited significant differences between the low and within-normal subgroups on the Dunnett T3 tests, effect sizes were computed. The authors identified and discussed meaningful MPQ-based personality characteristics of the low scoring subjects.

Psychometric functioning of the MMPI-2-RF VRIN-r and TRIN-r scales with varying degrees of randomness, acquiescence, and counter-acquiescence.

In the present study, the authors evaluated the effects of increasing degrees of simulated non-content-based (random or fixed) responding on scores on the newly developed Variable Response Inconsistency-Revised (VRIN-r) and True Response Inconsistency-Revised (TRIN-r) scales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF; Y. S. Ben-Porath & A. Tellegen, 2008) and compared the performance of these new scales with the existing VRIN and TRIN scales of the MMPI-2 (J. N. Butcher et al., 2001). The results support the interpretation of VRIN-r and TRIN-r scores as measures of random and fixed responding, respectively. Furthermore, the authors examined how scores on the Restructured Clinical (RC) scales (A. Tellegen et al., 2003) are affected by increasing levels of non-content-based responding and offer practical interpretive recommendations for test users. Finally, the results of the present study indicate that RC validity coefficients are relatively robust in the face of moderate degrees of non-content-based responding.

Construct validity of the MMPI-2 restructured clinical (RC) scales: reply to Rouse, Greene, Butcher, Nichols, and Williams.

Rouse, Greene, Butcher, Nichols, and Williams (2008) repeat two claims about the MMPI-2 Restructured (RC) scales. One asserts that the correlations of RC scales with parent Clinical scales are modest compared to the correlations with other existing MMPI-2 scales. In response, we reiterate that the RC scales were not meant to emulate the divergent and overlapping content of the Clinical scales. Instead, each represents a distinctive Clinical scale component. Although individually focused, the RC scales span collectively a wide range of content and used as multivariate predictors, account for most of the variance of each Clinical scale. Rouse et al. also claim that most RC scales are redundant with existing MMPI-2 scales, which they propose as substitutes ("proxies"). However, our analyses of Rouse et al.'s database and of our own data show that several of their proposed proxies are far less mutually distinguishable than are the RC scale counterparts. Furthermore, several Clinical scales are more successfully, and none are less successfully, accounted for by RC scales than by proxies. In response to Rouse et al.'s neglect of a body of empirical findings supporting the construct validity of the RC scales, we also review the relevant research literature.

Empirical correlates of the MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical (RC) Scales in mental health, forensic, and nonclinical settings: an introduction.

We introduce 3 studies of the empirical correlates of the MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical (RC) Scales: a study by Arbisi, Sellbom, and Ben-Porath (2008/this issue) that expands the range of correlates of the RC scale in mental health settings; an investigation by Sellbom, Ben-Porath, Baum, Erez, and Gregory (2008/this issue) of the empirical correlates of the scales in a forensic setting; and a study by Forbey and Ben-Porath (2008/this issue) examining convergent and discriminant validities of the RC scale in a nonclinical setting. To serve as a general introduction to the 3 new empirical studies presented in this special section, we begin with a review of the existing literature on the RC scales and briefly describe these studies.

Further evidence on the validity of the MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical (RC) Scales: addressing questions raised by Rogers, Sewell, Harrison, and Jordan and Nichols.

The reviews by Rogers, Sewell, Harrison, and Jordan (2006/this issue), and by Nichols (2006/this issue) offer markedly contrasting appraisals of the MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical (RC) Scales introduced by Tellegen et al. (2003). The one common feature is that both reviews draw on the same atypical MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) data set for their empirical analyses, with results warranting critical scrutiny. Rogers et al.'s critique provides an evaluation of the RC Scales from the perspective of Jackson's (1970) method of test development. One significant issue in Rogers et al.'s review concerns social desirability, prompting us to clarify our own views on this topic. We also highlight and discuss problems associated with Rogers et al.'s use of the unrepresentative data set. Nichols's polemical critique neglects empirical and theoretical support for demoralization as a central construct and misconstrues as "construct drift" the purposeful process of developing the RC scales. Nichols's criticisms and proposals overlook requirements for assessing syndromes and for construct validation and even rudiments of scale development. Our reply incorporates evidence, including new findings, refuting his criticisms and confirming that demoralization is a pervasive MMPI dimension, that the RC Scales capture the major distinctive features of the original Clinical Scales, and that they generate correspondingly meaningful validity patterns.

Childhood peer reputation as a predictor of competence and symptoms 10 years later.

This study examined the differential developmental significance of multiple domains of peer reputation in childhood for current and future competence and symptoms. Participants were 205 children from a normative school cohort who completed assessments in grades 3-6 and then again 10 years later. Through re-analysis of original data from the Revised Class Play (RCP; N=612), new narrow-band subscales were examined as distinct correlates and predictors of competence in age-relevant developmental tasks and psychological well being as indexed by internalizing symptoms. Findings support the differentiation of peer exclusion, withdrawal, and sadness within the broad sensitive-isolated domain of reputation, as well as the distinctive meaning of reputations for Popularity-Leadership and Prosocial Behavior within the broad Sociable-Leader domain. When the Sensitive-Isolated predictors were considered, academic and job competence at the 10-year follow-up were predicted uniquely and negatively by peer exclusion, problems in the social and romantic domains were predicted distinctively by withdrawal from peers, and internalizing symptoms were uniquely predicted by childhood reputation as Sad-Sensitive. When the Sociable-Leader predictors were considered, academic and (for ethnic minority youth) job success was predicted by a Prosocial reputation, social success was forecasted by Popularity-Leadership, and romantic competence was predicted positively by Popularity-Leadership and negatively by Prosocial reputation. Negative academic and job outcomes were also predicted by a childhood reputation as Aggressive-Disruptive. Results are discussed in relation to conceptualizing and measuring peer social competence and its relation to later adaptation.

Effects of picture content and intensity on affective physiological response.

This study evaluated the effects of affective intensity and thematic content of foreground photographic stimuli on various physiological response systems. This was accomplished by assessing responses to pictures that varied systematically in these parameters. Along with overall effects of picture valence reported in previous work, we found effects of thematic content (i.e., specific nature of objects/events depicted) for all measures except heart rate. In addition, we found that the magnitude of startle blink, skin conductance, and corrugator muscle reactions increased with increasing affective intensity of pictures. Additionally, for these three measures, intensity effects also interacted with effects of picture content. These results indicate that stimulus parameters of intensity and thematic content exert separate-and in some cases interactive-modulatory effects on physiological reactions to emotional pictures.

Developmental cascades: linking academic achievement and externalizing and internalizing symptoms over 20 years.

A developmental cascade model linking competence and symptoms was tested in a study of a normative, urban school sample of 205 children (initially 8 to 12 years old). Internalizing and externalizing symptoms and academic competence were assessed by multiple methods at the study outset and after 7, 10, and 20 years. A series of nested cascade models was tested through structural equation modeling. The final model indicated 2 hypothesized cascade effects: Externalizing problems evident in childhood appeared to undermine academic competence by adolescence, which subsequently showed a negative effect on internalizing problems in young adulthood. A significant exploratory effect was consistent with internalizing symptoms containing or lowering the net risk for externalizing problems under some conditions. These 3 cascade effects did not differ by gender and were not attributable to effects of IQ, parenting quality, or socioeconomic differences. Implications are discussed for developmental models of cascades, progressions, and preventive interventions.

Salient and emerging developmental tasks in the transition to adulthood.

Drawing on data from a normative sample of 205 children tracked into adulthood, this study examined the predictive links from 3 salient (friendship, academic, conduct) and 2 emerging (work, romantic) developmental tasks during the transition years around age 20 to adult adaptation 10 years later. Results (a) confirm the utility of salient developmental tasks for predicting adult success, (b) suggest that emerging domains have limited long-term predictive significance, and (c) more generally support a view that developmental tasks follow a course through life of waxing and waning salience and organization that has implications for future adaptation.

Resources and resilience in the transition to adulthood: continuity and change.

Patterns of continuity and change in competence and resilience over the transition to adulthood were examined in relation to adversity and psychosocial resources, with a focus on adaptive resources that may be particularly important for this transition. Variable-focused and person-focused analyses drew on data from the Project Competence longitudinal study of a school cohort followed over 20 years from childhood through emerging adulthood (EA) into the young adulthood (YA) years with excellent retention (90%). Success in age-salient and emerging developmental tasks from EA to YA was examined in a sample of 173 of the original participants with complete data on adversity, competence, and key resources. Regressions and extreme-group analyses indicated striking continuity in competence and resilience, yet also predictable change. Success in developmental tasks in EA and YA was related to core resources originating in childhood (IQ, parenting quality, socioeconomic status) and also to a set of EA adaptive resources that included planfulness/future motivation, autonomy, adult support, and coping skills. EA adaptive resources had unique predictive significance for successful transitions to adulthood, both overall and for the small group of individuals whose pattern of adaptation changed dramatically from maladaptive to resilient over the transition. Results are discussed in relation to the possibility that the transition to adulthood is a window of opportunity for changing the life course.

A developmental perspective on personality in emerging adulthood: childhood antecedents and concurrent adaptation.

Personality and competence were examined in a community sample of 205 children ages 8-12 who were followed up 10 years later in emerging adulthood (ages 17-23). Adult Positive Emotionality (PEM), Negative Emotionality (NEM), and Constraint (CON) were presaged by childhood personality. PEM was associated with current success in social and romantic relationships. Low CON was associated with childhood and current antisocial conduct. NEM was broadly linked to childhood and current maladaptation, consistent with the possibility that failure in major developmental tasks increases NEM. Findings highlight the pervasive linkage of NEM to maladaptation and suggest that adult personality may develop from processes embedded in childhood adaptation as well as childhood personality.

The appropriateness of the MMPI-2 K correction.

The extent to which the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) K scale serves as a suppressor variable that influences the validity of clinical scale scores was examined using 274 male and 425 female outpatients from a community mental health center and 105 male and 247 female clients from a university psychological clinic. Hierarchical regression analyses were performed with MMPI-2 K scale scores and clinical scale scores as predictors and therapist ratings as criteria. In most cases, the K scale did not act as a suppressor Optimal K weights were different from the traditional K corrections. In most instances, there were no significant differences between correlations of therapist ratings with K-corrected and uncorrected clinical scale scores. The results do not support the K scale as a suppressor variable in these settings, although additional research is needed in settings where higher levels of defensiveness are common.

Development and validation of a brief form of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire.

The Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ; A. Tellegen, 1982, in press) provides for a comprehensive analysis of personality at both the lower order trait and broader structural levels. Its higher order dimensions of Positive Emotionality, Negative Emotionality, and Constraint embody affect and temperament constructs, which have been conceptualized in psychobiological terms. The MPQ thus holds considerable potential as a structural framework for investigating personality across varying levels of analysis, and this potential would be enhanced by the availability of an abbreviated version. This article describes efforts to develop and validate a brief (155-item) form, the MPQ-BF. Success was evidenced by uniformly high correlations between the brief- and full-form trait scales and consistency of higher order structures. The MPQ-BF is recommended as a tool for investigating the genetic, neurobiological, and psychological substrates of personality.