Differences in velocity-information processing between two areas in the auditory cortex of mustached bats.

The bio-sonar pulse of the mustached bat, Pteronotus parnellii parnellii, consists of four harmonics of constant frequency (CF1-4) and frequency-modulated (FM1-4) components. The CF and FM components carry velocity and distance information, respectively. In the auditory cortex of mustached bats, the CC ("C" stands for constant frequency) and DIF (dorsal intrafossa) areas consist of CF/CF neurons tuned to a combination of pulse CF1 and echo CFn (n = 2 or 3). They show facilitative responses to pulse-echo stimuli with specific frequency differences, corresponding to Doppler shifts. Their facilitative responses are sharply tuned to a specific relative target velocity (best velocity). Compared with CC neurons, DIF neurons are tuned to higher velocities and to larger CF1 amplitudes, and adapt faster to repetitive pulse-echo stimuli. The great majority of CC neurons are suited for the processing of velocity information during cruising and target-directed flight, whereas the majority of DIF neurons are suited for the processing of velocity information when the bat is emitting loud pulses at low repetition rates during cruising flight. CC and DIF neurons are broadly tuned to 0-2-ms echo delays and not suited for ranging.

Rapid, specific, no-wash, far-red fluorogen activation in subcellular compartments by targeted fluorogen activating proteins.

Live cell imaging requires bright photostable dyes that can target intracellular organelles and proteins with high specificity in a no-wash protocol. Organic dyes possess the desired photochemical properties and can be covalently linked to various protein tags. The currently available fluorogenic dyes are in the green/yellow range where there is high cellular autofluorescence and the near-infrared (NIR) dyes need to be washed out. Protein-mediated activation of far-red fluorogenic dyes has the potential to address these challenges because the cell-permeant dye is small and nonfluorescent until bound to its activating protein, and this binding is rapid. In this study, three single chain variable fragment (scFv)-derived fluorogen activating proteins (FAPs), which activate far-red emitting fluorogens, were evaluated for targeting, brightness, and photostability in the cytosol, nucleus, mitochondria, peroxisomes, and endoplasmic reticulum with a cell-permeant malachite green analog in cultured mammalian cells. Efficient labeling was achieved within 20-30 min for each protein upon the addition of nM concentrations of dye, producing a signal that colocalized significantly with a linked mCerulean3 (mCer3) fluorescent protein and organelle specific dyes but showed divergent photostability and brightness properties dependent on the FAP. These FAPs and the ester of malachite green dye (MGe) can be used as specific, rapid, and wash-free labels for intracellular sites in live cells with far-red excitation and emission properties, useful in a variety of multicolor experiments.

Measuring protein dynamics in live cells: protocols and practical considerations for fluorescence fluctuation microscopy.

Quantitative analysis of protein complex stoichiometries and mobilities are critical for elucidating the mechanisms that regulate cellular pathways. Fluorescence fluctuation spectroscopy (FFS) techniques can measure protein dynamics, such as diffusion coefficients and formation of complexes, with extraordinary precision and sensitivity. Complete calibration and characterization of the microscope instrument is necessary in order to avoid artifacts during data acquisition and to capitalize on the full capabilities of FFS techniques. We provide an overview of the theory behind FFS techniques, discuss calibration procedures, provide protocols, and give practical considerations for performing FFS experiments. One important parameter recovered from FFS measurements is the relative molecular brightness that can correlate with oligomerization. Three methods for measuring molecular brightness (fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, photon-counting histogram, and number and brightness analysis) recover similar values when measuring samples under ideal conditions in vitro. However, examples are given illustrating that these different methods used for calculating molecular brightness of fluorescent molecules in cells are not always equivalent. Methods relying on spot measurements are more prone to bleaching and movement artifacts that can lead to underestimation of brightness values. We advocate for the use of multiple FFS techniques to study molecular brightnesses to overcome and compliment limitations of individual techniques.

Intracellular pH measurements using perfluorocarbon nanoemulsions.

We report the synthesis and formulation of unique perfluorocarbon (PFC) nanoemulsions enabling intracellular pH measurements in living cells via fluorescent microscopy and flow cytometry. These nanoemulsions are formulated to readily enter cells upon coincubation and contain two cyanine-based fluorescent reporters covalently bound to the PFC molecules, specifically Cy3-PFC and CypHer5-PFC conjugates. The spectral and pH-sensing properties of the nanoemulsions were characterized in vitro and showed the unaltered spectral behavior of dyes after formulation. In rat 9L glioma cells loaded with nanoemulsion, the local pH of nanoemulsions was longitudinally quantified using optical microscopy and flow cytometry and displayed a steady decrease in pH to a level of 5.5 over 3 h, indicating rapid uptake of nanoemulsion to acidic compartments. Overall, these reagents enable real-time optical detection of intracellular pH in living cells in response to pharmacological manipulations. Moreover, recent approaches for in vivo cell tracking using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) employ intracellular PFC nanoemulsion probes to track cells using (19)F MRI. However, the intracellular fate of these imaging probes is poorly understood. The pH-sensing nanoemulsions allow the study of the fate of the PFC tracer inside the labeled cell, which is important for understanding the PFC cell loading dynamics, nanoemulsion stability and cell viability over time.

Multiple motifs regulate apical sorting of p75 via a mechanism that involves dimerization and higher-order oligomerization.

The sorting signals that direct proteins to the apical surface of polarized epithelial cells are complex and can include posttranslational modifications, such as N- and O-linked glycosylation. Efficient apical sorting of the neurotrophin receptor p75 is dependent on its O-glycosylated membrane proximal stalk, but how this domain mediates targeting is unknown. Protein oligomerization or clustering has been suggested as a common step in the segregation of all apical proteins. Like many apical proteins, p75 forms dimers, and we hypothesized that formation of higher-order clusters mediated by p75 dimerization and interactions of the stalk facilitate its apical sorting. Using fluorescence fluctuation techniques (photon-counting histogram and number and brightness analyses) to study p75 oligomerization status in vivo, we found that wild-type p75-green fluorescent protein forms clusters in the trans-Golgi network (TGN) but not at the plasma membrane. Disruption of either the dimerization motif or the stalk domain impaired both clustering and polarized delivery. Manipulation of O-glycan processing or depletion of multiple galectins expressed in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells had no effect on p75 sorting, suggesting that the stalk domain functions as a structural prop to position other determinants in the lumenal domain of p75 for oligomerization. Additionally, a p75 mutant with intact dimerization and stalk motifs but with a dominant basolateral sorting determinant (Δ250 mutant) did not form oligomers, consistent with a requirement for clustering in apical sorting. Artificially enhancing dimerization restored clustering to the Δ250 mutant but was insufficient to reroute this mutant to the apical surface. Together these studies demonstrate that clustering in the TGN is required for normal biosynthetic apical sorting of p75 but is not by itself sufficient to reroute a protein to the apical surface in the presence of a strong basolateral sorting determinant. Our studies shed new light on the hierarchy of polarized sorting signals and on the mechanisms by which newly synthesized proteins are segregated in the TGN for eventual apical delivery.

"Late" macroendosomes and acidic endosomes in vertebrate motor nerve terminals.

Activity at the vertebrate nerve-muscle synapse creates large macroendosomes (MEs) via bulk membrane infolding. Visualized with the endocytic probe FM1-43, most (94%) of the ∼25 MEs/terminal created by brief (30-Hz, 18-second) stimulation dissipate rapidly (∼1 minute) into vesicles. Others, however, remain for hours. Here we study these "late" MEs by using 4D live imaging over a period of ∼1 hour after stimulation. We find that some (51/398 or 13%) disappear spontaneously via exocytosis, releasing their contents into the extracellular milieu. Others (at least 15/1,960 or 1%) fuse or closely associate with a second class of endosomes that take up acidophilic dyes (acidic endosomes [AEs]). AEs are plentiful (∼47/terminal) and exist independent of stimulation. Unlike MEs, which exhibit Brownian motion, AEs exhibit directed motion (average, 83 nm/sec) on microtubules within and among terminal boutons. AEs populate the axon as well, where movement is predominantly retrograde. They share biochemical and immunohistochemical markers (e.g., lysosomal-associated membrane protein [LAMP-1]) with lysosomes. Fusion/association of MEs with AEs suggests a sorting/degradation pathway in nerve terminals wherein the role of AEs is similar to that of lysosomes. Based on our data, we propose that MEs serve as sorting endosomes. Thus their contents, which include plasma membrane proteins, vesicle proteins, and extracellular levels of Ca(2+) , can be targeted either toward the reformation and budding of synaptic vesicles, toward secretion via exocytosis, or toward a degradation process that utilizes AEs either for lysis within the terminal or for transport toward the cell body.

Macroendocytosis and endosome processing in snake motor boutons.

We have examined the processing of endosomes formed by macroendocytosis (ME), or bulk membrane retrieval, in active motor terminal boutons at the snake nerve-muscle synapse. Endocytic probes were imaged at light (FM1-43) and electron (horseradish peroxidase (HRP)) levels over stimulus frequencies representing low, intermediate and high levels of use. Endosomes formed rapidly (1-2 s) at all frequencies, concomitant with clathrin-mediated vesicular endocytosis (CME). Endosomes dissipated rapidly into vesicles (approximately 10 s). The dissipation rate was not influenced by activity. Many endosomes split into clusters of 2-20 smaller endosomes of varying size. Vesicles budded from these smaller endosomes, from large endosomes that had not undergone fission into smaller ones, and from precursor membrane infoldings that had not yet internalized. In snake, exocytosed vesicular membrane is not competent for reuse until after a delay (> 3 min). We found that time required for endosome processing is not responsible for this delay. Endosome processing might, however, limit availability of some vesicles for release at very high levels of use. Generally, endosome processing paralleled that of vesicles internalized directly from the plasma membrane via CME, regardless of stimulus frequency. There was no evidence for differential recruitment of ME versus CME depending upon level of use.

Vesicles in snake motor terminals comprise one functional pool and utilize a single recycling strategy at all stimulus frequencies.

At a variety of fast chemical synapses, spent synaptic vesicles are recycled via a large 'reserve' vesicle pool at high stimulus frequencies, and via fast 'local cycling' near release sites (e.g. 'kiss and run' transmitter release) at low stimulus frequencies. We have investigated recycling at the snake neuromuscular junction (NMJ), specifically seeking evidence for local cycling. Activity-dependent staining and destaining of the endocytic probe FM1-43 were directly compared to transmitter release over a range of stimulus frequencies. We found a fixed proportionality between staining/destaining and summed endplate potentials (EPPs) representing total transmitter release. There was no direct dependence of staining or destaining on stimulus frequency, as would be expected if local cycling (and consequent altered FM1-43 retention) were more prevalent at one frequency than another. In other experiments the drug vesamicol was used to abolish refilling of vesicles with transmitter, thereby blocking EPPs contributed by recycled vesicles. Control and vesamicol-treated NMJs had identical quantal content for the first 10 min of 1 Hz stimulation. Afterwards EPP amplitudes at vesamicol-treated NMJs declined at a rate consistent with use of a large pool containing approximately 130,000 vesicles. Finally, calibrated paired stimulations show that regenerated vesicles have poorer than random probability of re-release. Our findings are inconsistent with local cycling and suggest that the snake motor terminal utilizes exclusively a single large vesicle pool.

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis in snake motor terminals is directly facilitated by intracellular Ca2+.

At the snake neuromuscular junction, low temperature (LT, 5-7 degrees C) blocks clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) while exocytosis is largely unaffected. Thus compensatory endocytosis that normally follows transmitter release is inhibited, or 'delayed' until the preparation is warmed to room temperature (RT). This delay was exploited to observe how changes in bulk [Ca(2+)](i) directly affect CME. Motor terminals were loaded with fura-2 to monitor [Ca(2+)](i). With brief stimulation at LT, [Ca(2+)](i) transiently increased but returned to baseline ( approximately 63 nm) in < 8 min. After 15 min at LT, [Ca(2+)](i) was altered by incubating preparations in the Ca(2+) ionophore ionomyocin. Preparations were then warmed to RT to initiate delayed endocytosis, which was quantified as uptake of the fluorescent optical probe sulforhodamine 101. Endocytosis was more rapid when [Ca(2+)](i) increased; the rate at 300 nm Ca(2+) was approximately double that under basal conditions. Thus the rate of CME - isolated from stimulation, transmitter release, and other forms of endocytosis - is directly influenced by intraterminal Ca(2+).

"Delayed" endocytosis is regulated by extracellular Ca2+ in snake motor boutons.

When cooled below approximately 7 degrees C, recently endocytosed vesicles in the motor terminals of the garter snake fail to shed their clathrin coats. Perhaps as a result, the terminals complete only about one-half of the compensatory endocytosis expected after a given period of stimulation. Upon return to room temperature (RT), endocytosis resumes immediately and is complete within minutes. This "delayed" endocytosis following release from cold block provides an opportunity to study clathrin-dependent endocytotic mechanisms in temporal isolation from those events, such as Ca2+ entry and consequent exocytosis, that are normally associated with the activation of nerve terminals. We have taken advantage of clathrin decoating blockade to examine the rate, temperature dependence and extracellular Ca2+ dependence of endocytosis at the snake nerve-muscle synapse. Endocytosis was fast at RT (complete in < 1 min) and markedly faster still at 35 degrees C. Moreover, the rate of endocytosis varied significantly with change in [Ca2+]o; the rate at 7.2 mM (single exponential time constant, approximately 3 s) was approximately double that at 0 mM (single exponential time constant, approximately 7 s). Thus, membrane retrieval via clathrin is rapid and, due to its dependence on [Ca2+]o, potentially regulated by changes in the milieu of the synaptic cleft during neural activity.

The nerve-muscle synapse of the garter snake.

Snake nerve-muscle preparations are well-suited for study of both motor innervation patterns at the systems level and NMJ function at the cellular level. Their small size ( approximately 100 myofibers) and thinness (one fiber) allows access to all NMJs in one muscle. Snake NMJs are of three types, two twitch subtypes and a single tonic type. Properties of the NMJs supplied by a particular motor neuron, and of the motor unit fibers they innervate, are precisely regulated by the motor neuron in a manner consistent with the Henneman Size Principle. Unlike its amphibian or mammalian cousins, the snake NMJ comprises approximately 50 (twitch) or approximately 20 (tonic) individual one-bouton synapses, similar to synapses found in the central nervous system. Each bouton releases a few quanta per stimulus. Larger fibers, which require more synaptic current to initiate contraction, receive nerve terminals that contain more boutons and express receptor patches with higher sensitivity to transmitter. Quantal analysis suggests that transmitter release sites in one bouton do not behave independently; rather, they may cooperate to reduce fluctuations and enhance reliability. After release, two mechanisms coexist for retrieval and reprocessing of spent vesicles-one involving clathrin-mediated endocytosis, the other macropinocytosis. Unanswered questions include how each mechanism is regulated in a use-dependent manner.