Substrate-Specific Reduction of Tetrazolium Salts by Isolated Mitochondria, Tissues, and Leukocytes.

Tetrazolium salts are commonly used in cytochemical and biochemical studies as indicators of metabolic activity of cells. Formazans, formed by reduction of tetrazolium salts, behave as pseudo-solutions during initial incubation, which allows monitoring their optical density throughout incubation. The criteria and conditions for measuring oxidative activity of mitochondria and dehydrogenase activity in reduction of nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) and methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) in suspensions of isolated mitochondria, tissue homogenates, and leukocytes were investigated in this work. We found that the reduction of these two acceptors depended on the oxidized substrate - NBT was reduced more readily during succinate oxidation, while MTT - during oxidation of NAD-dependent substrates. Reduction of both acceptors was more sensitive to dehydrogenase inhibitors that to respiratory chain inhibitors. The reduction of NBT in isolated mitochondria, in leukocytes in the presence of digitonin, and in liver and kidney homogenates was completely blocked by succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors - malonate and TTFA. Based on these criteria, activation of succinate oxidation was revealed from the increase in malonate-sensitive fraction of the reduced NBT under physiological stress. The effect of progesterone and its synthetic analogs on oxidation of NAD-dependent substrates by mitochondria was investigated using MTT. Both acceptors are also reduced by superoxide anion; the impact of this reaction is negligible or completely absent under physiological conditions, but can become detectable on generation of superoxide induced by inhibitors of individual enzyme complexes or in the case of mitochondrial dysfunction. The results indicate that the recording of optical density of reduced NBT and MTT is a highly sensitive method for evaluation of metabolic activity of mitochondria applicable for different incubation conditions, it offers certain advantages in comparison with other methods (simultaneous incubation of a large set of probes in spectral cuvettes or plates); moreover, it allows determination of activity of separate redox-dependent enzymes when selective inhibitors are available.

[Genetic system for maintaining the mitochondrial human genome in yeast Yarrowia lipolytica].

For the first time, the possibility of maintaining an intact human mitochondrial genome in a heterologous system in the mitochondria of yeast Yarrowia lipolytica is shown. A method for introducing directional changes into the structure of the mitochondrial human genome replicating in Y. lipolytica by an artificially induced ability of yeast mitochondria for homologous recombination is proposed. A method of introducing and using phenotypic selection markers for the presence or absence of defects in genes tRNA-Lys and tRNA-Leu of the mitochondrial genome is developed. The proposed system can be used to correct harmful mutations of the human mitochondrial genome associated with mitochondrial diseases and for preparative amplification of intact mitochondrial DNA with an adjusted sequence in yeast cells. The applicability of the new system for the correction of mutations in the genes of Lys- and Leu-specific tRNAs of the human mitochondrial genome associated with serious and widespread human mitochondrial diseases such as myoclonic epilepsy with lactic acidosis (MELAS) and myoclonic epilepsy with ragged-red fibers (MERRF) is shown.

[Redox-dependent ferric oxide nanoparticles loaded with doxorubicin and their influence on the functions of mitochondria].

The spectral, fluorescent and functional properties of ferric oxide and ferric hydroxide nanoparticles loaded with doxorubicin and stabilized with citric acid or lysine were studied in comparison with free doxorubicin. Their effect on the opening of calcium-induced mitochondrial pore and the possibility of the controlled release of doxorubicin under the influence of redox stimuli were investigated. The data show that the effect of nanoparticles on mitochondria depends on the type of a stabilizer. The spectral and fluorescence methods used allow us to estimate the presence or absence of free doxorubicin in solution of nanoparticles and the:concentration of bound doxorubicin. It is shown that the dithiotreitol and glutathione increase the amplitude of absorption and fluorescence of doxorubicin during incubation with nanoparticles. It is assumed that this effect may be associated with the reduction of the oxidized iron by thiols with subsequent release of doxorubicin.

[Changes in gene expression and content of titin (connectin) in striated muscles of chronically etihanol-fed rats].

Changes in gene expression and isoform composition of giant sarcomeric protein titin (connectin) in cardiac muscle, as well as changes of its isoform composition in skeletal muscle (m. soleus) of chronically ethanol-fed rats have been studied using real-time RT-PCR and low percentage SDS-gel electrophoresis. The decrease of titin content in examined muscles and the decrease in titin gene expression in myocardium of chronically ethanol-fed rats have been shown. These changes indicate the development of pathologic process.

[The role of thiol antioxidants in restoring mitochondrial functions, modified by microbial metabolites].

The effects of phenolic acids of microbial origin on mitochondrial functions and the possibility of removing their effects by thiol antioxidants dithiotreitol and N-acethylcysteine were studied. The action of some phenolic acids on the redox state of NADH, the membrane potential and calcium capacity of mitochondria is due to their interaction with thiol groups. The partial restoration of mitochondrial functions occurred in the presence of dithiotreitol and N-acethylcysteine, the full recovery (short-term duration) was promoted by the combined action of dithiotreitol and menadione (vitamin K3). It was found that the protective effect of thiol antioxidants became prooxidant one, if the medium contained free iron and compounds with a quinone structure, capable of entering into a redox cycle with thiols. It is shown that the interaction of thiols with iron and menadione is accompanied by absorption of oxygen to form superoxide anion. Prooxidant effect of thiol antioxidants may explain the absence of the protective effect at the later stages of sepsis and systemic inflammatory syndrome.

[Effect of steroid hormones on production of reactive oxygen species in mitochondria].

Among the targets of the steroid hormones are mitochondria, which as the main source of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the cell play a central role in the development of various pathologies. We studied the effect of progesterone and its synthetic analogues on mitochondrial ROS production. It was found that progesterone activates the formation of superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide in mitochondria during oxidation of complex I substrates of the respiratory chain and exerts no influence on production of ROS during oxidation of succinate, complex II substrate of the respiratory chain. Synthetic analogues of progesterone - medroxyprogesterone acetate, buterol, acetomepregenol, megestrol acetate, have different effects on ROS production, depending on their chemical structure. By the effectiveness of impact on ROS production in mitochondria all the steroids tested can be classified in the descending order as follows: progesterone > buterol > or = atsetomepregenol > medroxyprogesterone acetate > megestrol acetate. Activation of ROS production by progesterone and buterol has different mechanisms: progesterone acts as an inhibitor of NAD-dependent respiration, while buterol and acetomepregenol form noncovalently associated complexes by hydrogen bonds between the ester carbonyl at C3 and SH-groups of the respective targets.

[The role of the voltage-dependent anion channels in the outer membrane of mitochondria in the regulation of cellular metabolism].

The role of the voltage-dependent anion channels (VDAC) harbored in the outer membrane of mitochondria in the regulation of cellular metabolism was investigated using an experimental model of ethanol toxicity in cultured hepatocytes. It was demonstrated that ethanol inhibits State 3 and uncoupled mitochondrial respirations, decreases the accessibility of mitochondrial adenylate kinase localized in the intermembrane space of mitochondria, and suppresses ureagenic respiration and synthesis of urea in cultured hepatocytes. Increasing the permeability of the outer mitochondrial membrane with closed VDAC with high concentrations of digitonin (> 80 microM), which creates pores in the membrane, allowing the alternative bypass of closed VDAC, and restores all reactions suppressed with ethanol. It is concluded that the effect of ethanol in hepatocytes leads to global loss of mitochondrial functions due to the closure of VDAC, which limits the free diffusion of metabolites into the intermembrane space of mitochondria. Our studies demonstrated that ethanol affects the main mitochondrial functions and revealed the role of VDAC channels in the outer mitochondrial membrane in the regulation of liver specific intracellular processes such as ureagenesis. The data obtained can be used for the development of pharmaceutical drugs that prevent the closure of VDAC in mitochondria of ethanol oxidizing liver, thus protecting liver tissue from the hepatotoxic action of alcohol.

[Effect of ethanol on synthesis of serine and exchange of methyl groups in hepatocytes by NMR spectroscopy].

The method of NMR spectroscopy was used to investigate the role of voltage-dependent anion channels in the outer mitochondrial membrane in the mechanism of ethanol hepatotoxicity using the synthesis of serine and exchange of methyl groups in hepatocytes metabolizing 13C-labeled glycine. Here we present and describe a methodological approach developed for the independent monitoring of the synthesis of serine in two intracellular compartments: the cytoplasm and mitochondria of intact hepatocytes, and quantification of different serine isotopomers synthesized in hepatocytes from 13C-labeled glycine. The data obtained indicate that the treatment of cells with ethanol as well as cysteamine (specific inhibitor of mitochondrial synthesis of serine) suppressed the level of mitochondria but not cytoplasmic serine isotopomers. It is concluded that the decrease in the production of mitochondrial serine isotopomers in hepatocytes exposed to ethanol can be caused not only by decreased permeability of the outer mitochondrial membrane due to the closure of voltage-dependent anion channels and suppression of the exchange of substrates of serine synthesis in mitochondria but also by the restoration of the cytoplasmic and/or mitochondrial pool of pyridine nucleotides (NADH) during the oxidation of ethanol. Our work reveals a new mechanism of action of ethanol (alcohol intoxication) in hepatocytes through the regulation of glycine metabolism and opens new possibilities in the treatment of alcohol poisoning.

[Mitochondria and hepatotoxicity of ethanol].

The current understanding of the effects of alcohol intoxication on the basic mitochondrial functions has been presented. Both, the direct toxic effect of ethanol on biological membranes and various cellular systems and the toxicity of acetaldehyde and reactive oxygen species (the products of ethanol oxidation) are discussed, with emphasis on the effect of ethanol on the basic functions of mitochondria and Ca(2+)-dependent mitochondrial permeability transition. Based on the available experimental data, it is demonstrated that acute alcohol intoxication causes a global mitochondrial dysfunction in the liver, resulting in considerable disturbance of the whole cellular metabolism. Alcohol poisoning of the liver leads to a decreased ability of cells to withstand oxidative stress, to support the synthesis of vital metabolic intermediates (e.g., methyl groups), as well as to produce urea from ammonia, due to a decreased permeability of the outer membrane and impaired exchange of substrates between the cytoplasm and the mitochondrial matrix. This review emphasizes the role of the voltage-dependent anion channels of the outer mitochondrial membrane in ethanol-mediated disturbances of basic mitochondrial functions and its consequences for the entire cell metabolism in the liver.

Bacillus subtilis and B. mojavensis strains connected to food poisoning produce the heat stable toxin amylosin.

AIM: To screen and characterize toxic, heat-stable substances produced by food borne strains from Bacillus subtilis group. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using the boar sperm motility inhibition assay, six isolates from two outbreaks, out of the 94 isolates from 26 foods, were found to produce ethanol-soluble heat-stable substances that were toxic to sperm cells by depleting the mitochondrial membrane potentials. The toxic isolates were identified as Bacillus subtilis and B mojavensis. Colon carcinoma cells (Caco-2) were used to model the contact with the human digestive tract. The extract of B. subtilis F 2564/96 depolarized the mitochondria in intact Caco-2 cells similarly as in sperm cells. The substance responsible for these effects was purified using HPLC and identified by electron spray ionization ion trap mass spectrometry analysis as amylosin. The temperature requirement for amylosin production was 21-37 degrees C for B. subtilis and 11-21 degrees C for B. mojavensis. Both species produced amylosin in air as well as in 7-8% CO(2) with 8-9% O(2). CONCLUSIONS: Food borne illness related strains of B. subtilis and B. mojavensis, produced the heat-stable toxin amylosin. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This is the first report that suggests a role for the heat-stable, ion-channel forming toxin amylosin, as a virulence factor in food borne Bacillus.

[Studies of interaction of intracellular signalling and metabolic pathways under inhibition of mitochondrial aconitase with fluoroacetate].

Mitochondrial aconitase has been shown to be inactivated by a spectrum of substances or critical states. Fluoroacetate (FA) is the most known toxic agent inhibiting aconitase. The biochemistry of toxic action of FA is rather well understood, though no effective therapy has been proposed for the past six decades. In order to reveal novel approaches for possible antidotes to be developed, experiments were performed with rat liver mitochondria, Ehrlich ascite tumor cells and cardiomyocytes, exposed to FA or fluorocitrate in vitro. The effect of FA developed at much higher concentrations in comparison with fluorocitrate and was dependent upon respiratory substrates in experiments with mitochondria: with pyruvate, FA induced a slow oxidation and/or leak of pyridine nucleotides and inhibition of respiration. Oxidation of pyridine nucleotides was prevented by incubation of mitochondria with cyclosporin A. Studies of the pyridine nucleotides level and calcium response generated in Ehrlich ascite tumor cells under activation with ATP also revealed a loss of pyridine nucleotides from mitochondria resulting in a shift in the balance of mitochondrial and cytosolic NAD(P)H under exposure to FA. An increase of cytosolic [Ca2+] was observed in the cell lines exposed to FA and is explained by activation of plasma membrane calcium channels; this mechanism, could have an impact on amplitude and rate of Ca2+ waves in cardiomyocytes. Highlighting the reciprocal relationship between intracellular pyridine nucleotides and calcium balance, we discuss metabolic pathway modulation in the context of probable development of an effective therapy for FA poisoning and other inhibitors of aconitase.

Oxidative stress in HEp-2 human laryngeal carcinoma cells induced by combination of vitamins B12b and C.

Incubation of human laryngeal epidermoid carcinoma HEp-2 cells with hydroxocobalamin (vitamin B12b) and ascorbic acid (vitamin C) for 1 h initiated oxidative stress accompanied by damage to mitochondria and increase in intracellular oxidative activity. Studies of the kinetics of these processes showed that the increase in intracellular H2O2 activity and mitochondrial damage are more likely a result, but not the cause of cell apoptosis during the first hour of their incubation with vitamins B12b and C.

In vitro assay for human toxicity of cereulide, the emetic mitochondrial toxin produced by food poisoning Bacillus cereus.

The in vitro boar spermatozoon test was compared with the LC ion trap MS analysis for measuring the cereulide content of a pasta dish, implemented in serious emetic food poisoning caused by Bacillus cereus. Both assays showed that the poisonous food contained approximately 1.6 microg of cereulide g(-1) implying the toxic dose in human as < or =8 microg kg(-1) body weight. The threshold concentration of cereulide provoking visible mitochondrial damage in boar sperm exposed in vitro was 2 ng of cereulide ml(-1) of extended boar sperm. The same threshold value was found for cereulide extracted from the food and from the cultured bacteria. This shows that other constituents of the food did not enhance or mask the effects of cereulide. Exposure of four human cell lines (HeLa, Caco-2, Calu-3 and Paju) to cereulide showed that the threshold concentration for the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential in human cells was similar to that observed in boar sperm. Human cells and boar sperm were equally sensitive to cereulide. The results show that boar spermatozoan assay is useful for detecting cereulide concentrations toxic to humans. Spermatozoa in commercially available extended fresh boar and cryopreserved bull semen were compared, boar sperms were 100 times more sensitive to cereulide than bull sperms.

Lucigenin-derived chemiluminescence in intact isolated mitochondria.

There are many data both in favor and against the use of lucigenin as a probe for superoxide anion (SA) in mitochondria, cells, and simple enzymatic systems. In the present work high concentrations (50-400 micro M) of lucigenin were used for continuous recording of rapid and reversible changes in the SA level in intact isolated mitochondria. The SA level in the presence of lucigenin rapidly and reversibly changed during the transition of the mitochondria from one functional state to another: under conditions of ATP synthesis from ADP and Pi, of Ca2+ accumulation, and of reverse electron transfer. Induction of a Ca2+,cyclosporin A-sensitive pore in mitochondria completely suppressed the lucigenin-derived chemiluminescence (LDC). The electron transfer in the Q-cycle of the respiratory chain complex III and high electric potential difference across the inner membrane of mitochondria were obligatory conditions for generation of a SA-dependent chemiluminescent signal. Based on our own and literature data, a scheme of LDC generation is suggested. The origin of superoxide anion detected in intact mitochondria with lucigenin is discussed.

Suppression of mitochondrial permeability transition pore and induction of lymphoma P388 cell death by cyclosporin A.

Suppression of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (PTP) and induction of lymphoma P388 cell death were studied in the presence of cyclosporin A (CsA) and its derivatives. In experiments with permeabilized P388 cells, CsA and its nonimmunosuppressive derivative N-methyl-Val-4-CsA, but not cyclosporin H (CsH), enhanced Ca2+ accumulation in mitochondria and suppressed PTP opening. Moreover, CsA was able either itself to induce or to enhance a prooxidant-induced P388 programmed cell death. Blebbing and formation of apoptotic bodies were among the observed CsA effects. N-Methyl-Val-4-CsA showed similar effects, but CsH had no effect on P388 cell death. These results show that initial-stage P388 tumour cell death is not related to PTP opening but can be the result of PTP closing with a corresponding increase in the formation of reactive oxygen species.

Regulation of oxidative phosphorylation in the inner membrane of rat liver mitochondria by calcium ions.

The effect of accumulation of Ca2+ at physiological concentrations (10(-8)-10(-6) M) on the rates of ATP synthesis and hydrolysis in rat liver mitochondria was studied. An addition of 5 x 10(-7) M Ca2+ resulted in the maximal rates of synthesis and hydrolysis of ATP. Decrease in the concentration of Ca2+ to 10-8 M or its increase to 5 x 10(-6) M inhibited oxidative phosphorylation and ATP hydrolysis. It was found that the rate of oxidative phosphorylation correlated with the phosphorylation level of a 3.5-kD peptide in the mitochondrial inner membrane on varying the Ca2+ concentration. The possible regulation of oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria by Ca2+ is discussed.

Mechanism of dihydrolipoate stimulation of the mitochondrial permeability transition: effect of different respiratory substrates.

The stimulation of the mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) by dihydrolipoate (DHLA) was studied in rat liver mitochondria in the presence of different respiratory substrates. The Ca2+ threshold for the induction of MPT was lowest for pyruvate, followed by 2-hydroxybutyrate, 2-oxoglutarate, glutamate plus malate, and succinate plus rotenone, both in the presence and absence of DHLA. DHLA was not able to induce MPT in the absence of Ca2+, in the presence of cyclosporin A, or rotenone with pyridine nucleotide-dependent substrates. The difference in sensitivity of MPT to DHLA with various substrates was correlated with the redox state of pyridine nucleotides but not the redox state of glutathione. These findings demonstrate that DHLA induced MPT pore opening through the P-site thiol. The similarities between the effect of DHLA and that of production of reactive oxygen species found in model experiments suggest that DHLA stimulates MPT by production of reactive oxygen species that exhaust the antioxidant defence.

Combined vitamins Bl2b and C induce the glutathione depletion and the death of epidermoid human larynx carcinoma cells HEp-2.

The combination of hydroxocobalamin (vitamin B12b) and ascorbic acid (vitamin C) can cause the death of tumor cells at the concentrations of the components at which they are nontoxic when administered separately. This cytotoxic action on epidermoid human larynx carcinoma cells HEp-2 in vitro is shown to be due to the hydrogen peroxide generated by the combination of vitamins B12b and C. The drop in the glutathione level preceding cell death was found to be the result of combined action of the vitamins. It is supposed that the induction of cell death by combined action of vitamins B12b and C is connected to the damage of the cell redox system.

Effect of glucose and deoxyglucose on the redistribution of calcium in ehrlich ascites tumour and Zajdela hepatoma cells and its consequences for mitochondrial energetics. Further arguments for the role of Ca(2+) in the mechanism of the crabtree effect.

The distribution of Ca(2+) in intact cells was monitored with fluorescent probes: fura-2 for cytosolic [Ca(2+)] and rhod-2 for mitochondrial [Ca(2+)]. It was found that in neoplastic cells, such as Ehrlich ascites tumour and Zajdela hepatoma, but not in non-malignant cells, such as fibroblasts, glucose and deoxyglucose elicited release of Ca(2+) from endoplasmic reticulum stores and an increase in Ca(2+) concentration in the cytosol. Parallel to this, a decrease in the rate of Ca(2+) extrusion from the cell and an enhanced uptake of Ca(2+) by mitochondria were observed. The increase in mitochondrial [Ca(2+)] was accompanied by an increase in the mitochondrial membrane potential and the reduction state of nicotinamide nucleotides. F(1)F(o)-ATPase in submitochondrial particles of Zajdela hepatoma was strongly inhibited in the presence of micromolar Ca(2+) concentrations, whereas this activity in submitochondrial particles from rat liver appeared to be less sensitive to Ca(2+). Indications of glycosylation of Ehrlich ascites tumour cell proteins were also obtained. These data strengthen the proposal [Bogucka, K., Teplova, V.V., Wojtczak, L. and Evtodienko, Y. V. (1995) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1228, 261-266] that the Crabtree effect is produced by mobilization of cell calcium, which is subsequently taken up by mitochondria and inhibits F(1)F(o)-ATP synthase.

The Ca2+ threshold for the mitochondrial permeability transition and the content of proteins related to Bcl-2 in rat liver and Zajdela hepatoma mitochondria.

Zajdela hepatoma mitochondria were able to accumulate two to five times more Ca2+ than rat liver mitochondria before the permeability transition was induced. Pulses of Ca2+ were given in series to determine the Ca2+ threshold by recording changes in [Ca2+] and membrane potential, the permeability transition causing the release of accumulated Ca2+ and collapse of the membrane potential. Hepatoma mitochondria had lower Ca2+ efflux rates, higher net Ca2+ uptake rates and lower phosphorylation rates than liver mitochondria. Since the differences in regard to induction of the permeability transition might be due to higher expression of the Bcl-2 protein in hepatoma cells than in hepatocytes, the transcription of Bcl-2 and the proteins reacting with a Bcl-2 polyclonal antiserum were estimated by Northern and Western blotting, respectively. Hepatoma cells had two Bcl-2 specific mRNA bands of 7 and 2.4 kb, and substantial amounts of the Bcl-2 protein, whereas in liver cells and mitochondria these were not detected. Both cell lines had a reactive band at 19-20 kDa, and hepatocytes a small band at 31-32 kDa. Bcl-2 antibodies stimulated the permeability transition potently in hepatoma mitochondria.