Monophosphoryl lipid A adjuvant reverses a principal histologic parameter of formalin-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine-induced disease.

The mechanisms by which administration of a formalin-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine resulted in enhanced disease among children after they later became naturally infected with the virus remains largely undefined. After immunization and live virus challenge, the cotton rat demonstrated the histopathologic marker of the enhanced disease, polymorphonuclear leukocyte infiltration of lung alveolar spaces. We now report that immunization with formalin-inactivated vaccine formulated with the adjuvant, 3-deacylated monophosphoryl lipid A, dramatically reduces or eliminates the polymorphonuclear leukocyte infiltration within the alveoli of cotton rats post-challenge. We suggest, that this or similar adjuvants may be beneficial components of candidate non-replicating respiratory syncytial virus vaccines, whose development has been hampered by safety concerns.

The adjuvant monophosphoryl lipid A increases the function of antigen-presenting cells.

The induction of immune responses in vivo is typically performed with antigens administered in external adjuvants, like alum, complete Freund's adjuvant, LPS and, more recently, monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL). However, the role of the adjuvant is still poorly defined. The aim of this study was to test whether the MPL affects the function of antigen-presenting cells (APC) in vitro and in vivo. Antigen-pulsed APC [including macrophages, B cells and dendritic cells (DC)] were incubated or not with MPL, and their ability to sensitize naive T cells was tested in vitro and in vivo. The data show that MPL enhances the ability of macrophages and B cells to sensitize naive T cells, and confers to them the capacity to induce the development of T(h)1 and T(h)2. Administration of MPL i.v. in mice results in the redistribution of fully mature DC in the T cell area of the spleen. These observations suggest that MPL may induce an antigen-specific primary immune response by provoking the migration and maturation of DC that are the physiological adjuvant of the immune system.

A hepatitis B vaccine formulated with a novel adjuvant system.

Although more than 95% of the vaccinated population responds to the currently licensed vaccines against hepatitis B, some groups were found to be low responders. Lipid A as adjuvant, through its ability to activate macrophages, might improve humoral as well as cellular immune response. Therefore we evaluated the profile of a hepatitis B vaccine with the new adjuvant system SBAS4. 150 young adults were enrolled and randomized into three groups: one received the SBAS4 hepatitis B vaccine, the second Engerix-B(TM) and the third a hepatitis B vaccine with an alternative formulation on alum. Vaccinations were at 0 and 6 months. The vaccine was well tolerated. At month 7 all vaccinees were protected but with significant differences in GMTs between groups: 13,271 mIU/ml for the SBAS4 group versus 1203 and 1823 mIU/ml. Hence the hepatitis B vaccine with the new adjuvant system is more immunogenic compared to the other vaccines containing the same antigen and could be suitable for a two dose schedule.

Virus load in chimpanzees infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1: effect of pre-exposure vaccination.

Many reports indicate that a long-term asymptomatic state following human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection is associated with a low amount of circulating virus. To evaluate the possible effect of stabilizing a low virus load by non-sterilizing pre-exposure vaccination, a quantitative virus isolation method was developed and evaluated in four chronically infected chimpanzees infected with a variety of HIV-1 related isolates. This assay was then used to monitor a group of chimpanzees (n = 6) challenged with HIV-1 following vaccination with gp120 or gp160. Data indicated that of the three vaccinated animals which became infected after challenge, the animal with the lowest neutralizing titre at the time of challenge acquired a virus load similar to the control animals, whereas the two other chimpanzees had reduced numbers of virus producing cells in their peripheral circulation. One animal became virus isolation negative, developed an indeterminant PCR signal on lymph node DNA and subsequently became negative for HIV-1 DNA as determined by PCR on PBMC (peripheral blood mononuclear cells) and bone marrow DNA. Recently, the second animal has also become PCR negative. To confirm observations from quantitative virus isolations, quantification of HIV-1 DNA in PBMC and virus RNA in serum was performed by PCR on serially diluted samples at two different time points. Comparison of virus load as determined by these three methods confirmed that there was an effect of vaccination in reducing virus load and demonstrated a correlation between decreased numbers of virus producing cells, HIV-1 DNA containing cells and virus RNA molecules in serum.

Fine analysis of humoral antibody response to envelope glycoprotein of SIV in infected and vaccinated macaques.

To characterize the serological response to SIV envelope, induced by vaccination with different envelope immunogens or by SIV infection, plasma samples from 11 cynomolgus macaques infected with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and from 16 macaques vaccinated with three different recombinant envelope proteins were analyzed by (1) ELISA, using a variety of antigens including overlapping peptides encompassing the entire sequence of the envelope protein of SIV, and (2) competition assays, using neutralizing monoclonal antibodies to SIV gp120. Seven regions of SIV envelope were predicted to be antigenic. Peptides representing four of these, in the second and third variable regions (V2 and V3) and the fourth constant (C4) region of gp120 and the Gnann region of gp41, were recognized by the majority of sera from infected and vaccinated animals. Additional antigenic regions were identified in the first and fourth variable domains (V1 and V4) and the carboxy terminus (C5) of gp120 and in three additional regions of gp41. Most infected and vaccinated animals made antibodies that competed with the binding of the three conformational MAbs. Among the vaccinated groups, antibodies induced by vaccination with precursor glycoproteins (gp140 or gp160) recognized several additional gp120 epitopes when compared with antibodies induced by external glycoprotein gp130. Sera from infected animals showed a more restricted gp120 response (17 of 46 peptides recognized) compared to animals vaccinated with precursor glycoproteins (31 peptides recognized). The converse was true for antibodies to gp41. Sera from animals vaccinated with recombinant gp140, produced in insect cells, were the only group that failed to compete with the binding of conformational MAbs. Finally, the development of antibodies to specific epitopes of gp120 and gp41 revealed differences between long-term survivors and nonsurvivors, implying that responses to specific epitopes may be important in conferring resistance to disease progression.

HIV-1 envelope-elicited neutralizing antibody titres correlate with protection and virus load in chimpanzees.

In an attempt to compare the protective effect of vaccination with two forms of envelope antigens, and to define immunological correlates of protection against HIV infection, chimpanzees were vaccinated with either recombinant gp160 or gp120. Homologous HIV challenge was performed 3 weeks after the fourth immunization. The animal with the highest level of serum neutralizing antibodies (gp160 immunogen) was protected against HIV infection. All other chimpanzees became infected, but displayed various levels of infected PBMCs. The postchallenge data gave rise to the following conclusions: (1) protection correlated with the level of the serological immune response, but not with the nature of immunogen (gp120 versus gp160); (2) the virus-neutralizing titre at day of challenge correlated with protection from infection; (3) the relative magnitude of the lymphoproliferative T-cell response at day of challenge did not correlate with any protective effect; (4) the peak numbers of virus-infected PBMCs in vaccinated animals were lower than those observed in control animals, and this effect was correlated with the intensity of the antibody response at day of challenge. This raises the possibility that a beneficial effect of HIV vaccination may be achieved in a situation where sterile immunity is not consistently obtained.

Effects of natural sequence variation on recognition by monoclonal antibodies neutralize simian immunodeficiency virus infectivity.

The determinants of immune recognition by five monoclonal antibodies (KK5, KK9, KK17, Senv7.1, and Senv101.1) that neutralize simian immunodeficiency virus infectivity were analyzed. These five neutralizing monoclonal antibodies were generated to native SIVmac251 envelope glycoprotein expressed by a vaccinia virus recombinant vector. All five recognize conformational or discontinuous epitopes and require native antigen for optimal recognition. These monoclonal antibodies also recognize SIVmac239 gp120, but they do not recognize gp120 of two natural variants of SIVmac239, 1-12 and 8-22, which evolved during the course of persistent infection in vivo (D.P.W. Burns and R.C. Desrosiers, J. Virol. 65:1843-1854, 1991). Recombinant viruses which were constructed by exchanging variable regions between SIVmac239 and variant 1-12 were used to define domains important for recognition. Radioimmunoprecipitation analysis demonstrated that sequence changes in variable regions 4 and 5 (V4/V5) were primarily responsible for the loss of recognition of the 1-12 variant. Site-specific mutants were used to define precise changes that eliminate recognition by these neutralizing antibodies. Changing N-409 to D, deletion of KPKE, and deletion of KEQH in V4 each resulted in loss of recognition by all five monoclonal antibodies. SIVs with these natural sequence changes are still replication competent and viable. Changing A-417 to T or A/N-417/418 to TK in V4 or Q-477 to K in V5 did not alter recognition detectably. These results define specific, naturally occurring sequence changes in V4 of SIVmac that result in loss of recognition by one class of SIVmac neutralizing antibodies.

Incomplete protection, but suppression of virus burden, elicited by subunit simian immunodeficiency virus vaccines.

We compared the efficacy of immunization with either simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) Env glycoprotein (Env), Env plus Gag proteins (Gag-Env), or whole inactivated virus (WIV), with or without recombinant live vaccinia vector (VV) priming, in protecting 23 rhesus macaques (six vaccine and two control groups) from challenge with SIVmac251 clone BK28. Vaccination elicited high titers of syncytium-inhibiting and anti-Env (gp120/gp160) antibodies in all vaccinated macaques and anti-Gag (p27) antibodies in groups immunized with WIV or Gag-Env. Only WIV-immunized macaques developed anticell (HuT78) antibodies. After homologous low-dose intravenous virus challenge, we used frequency of virus isolation, provirus burden, and change in antibody titers to define four levels of resistance to SIV infection as follows. (i) No infection ("sterilizing" immunity) was induced only in WIV-immunized animals. (ii) Abortive infection (strong immunity) was defined when virus or provirus were detected early in the postchallenge period but not thereafter and no evidence of virus or provirus was detected in terminal tissues. This response was observed in two animals (one VV-Env and one Gag-Env). (iii) Suppression of infection (incomplete or partial immunity) described a gradient of virus suppression manifested by termination of viremia, declining postchallenge antibody titers, and low levels (composite mean = 9.1 copies per 10(6) cells) of provirus detectable in peripheral blood mononuclear cells or lymphoid tissues at termination (40 weeks postchallenge). This response occurred in the majority (8 of 12) of subunit-vaccinated animals. (iv) Active infection (no immunity) was characterized by persistent virus isolation from blood mononuclear cells, increasing viral antibody titers postchallenge, and high levels (composite mean = 198 copies per 10(6) cells) of provirus in terminal tissues and blood. Active infection developed in all controls and two of three VV-Gag-Env-immunized animals. The results of this study restate the protective effect of inactivated whole virus vaccines produced in heterologous cells but more importantly demonstrate that a gradient of suppression of challenge virus growth, reflecting partial resistance to SIV infection, is induced by subunit vaccination. The latter finding may be pertinent to studies with human immunodeficiency virus vaccines, in which it is plausible that vaccination may elicit significant suppression of virus infection and pathogenicity rather than sterilizing immunity.

International collaboration comparing neutralization and binding assays for monoclonal antibodies to simian immunodeficiency virus.

Thirteen laboratories characterized a coded panel of 10 MAbs to SIVmac251 envelope protein in a collaboration organized by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). The MAbs were examined against SIV isolates in neutralization and radioimmune precipitation, immunoblot, enzyme-linked immunosorbent, and radioimmune assays. Although laboratories employed diverse neutralization assays that varied in sensitivity there was agreement on the relative ability of the MAbs to neutralize SIVmac251. Additionally, even though the quantity of any single MAb required to neutralize SIVmac251 varied between laboratories, there was agreement on the rank-order strength fo the five neutralizing MAbs. Based on the data from this study, the MAbs were classified according to their neutralization potential as high efficiency (MAb concentration, < 5 micrograms/ml), low efficiency (MAb concentration, 5-100 micrograms/ml), or nonneutralizing (MAb concentration, > 100 micrograms/ml). The MAbs could be assigned to four serological groups based on ability to cross-neutralize and bind different SIV isolates. The distinction between groups I, II, and III were based on the limited neutralization data obtained with the sooty mangabey isolate.

Immunisation of macaques with SIV env recombinants: specificity of T cell and antibody responses and evaluation of protective efficacy.

Macaques were immunised with lentil lectin purified recombinant SIVmac (BK28) derived gp160 (rgp160) with or without live vaccinia (vac)-env (BK28) priming, followed by a final boost with solid matrix antibody antigen (SMAA)-gp160 (J5) complexes and challenged with the SIVmac molecularly cloned virus J5M. Rgp160 and vac-env plus gp160 induced strong Ab responses against the homologous virus. Live vac-env did not enhance or prolong the antibody response, however, T cell responses were stronger. Analysis of the specificity of the immune response demonstrated that sequence variation within SIVmac viruses can affect antibody and T cell recognition. A single booster immunisation with the heterologous SIVmac J5 env recombinant protein was not sufficient to protect against the molecularly cloned virus J5M. These findings further illustrate the difficulty of generating protective immunity with immunogens based on single sequence recombinants.

Identification of two neutralizing and 8 non-neutralizing epitopes on simian immunodeficiency virus envelope using monoclonal antibodies.

Ten new monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) to SIV envelope were produced and characterized. Using a panel of 28 MAbs, 10 antibody binding sites on SIV envelope protein were identified. Seven sites were located in gp120 and three in gp41. Five sites in gp120 and two in gp41 were defined by overlapping peptides. The remaining two sites on gp120 and one on gp41 were distinguished by competition binding assays but could not be defined by overlapping peptides, suggesting that they were discontinuous or conformational epitopes. Five of the 28 MAbs consistently and reliably neutralized the infectivity of SIVmac251. Two of these bound to a peptide (aa171-190) in the V2 region. The remaining three MAbs bound to a conformational epitope on gp120. These two neutralizing epitopes on SIV are analogous to similar epitopes recently described in HIV-1. In contrast, three MAbs binding to the V3 region of SIV failed to neutralize infectivity, suggesting that this region in SIV may by functionally different from the V3 loop in HIV-1.

Lethal oxidative damage to human immunodeficiency virus by human recombinant myeloperoxidase.

Human recombinant myeloperoxidase was evaluated in a cell-free system for its inactivation properties on the replication of human immunodeficiency virus, HTLV-IIIB. In the presence of a hydrogen peroxide generating system (glucose and glucose oxidase) and sodium thiocyanate, the recombinant enzyme inhibited virus-induced syncytium formation and viral replication without causing any cytopathic effects on SupT1 reporter cells. In addition, U937 monocytoid cells, chronically infected with HIV1, were exposed to recombinant myeloperoxidase (10 U/ml) and monitored during 48 h for the accumulation of intracellular p24 viral antigen. Under these conditions, the recombinant enzyme significantly reduced intracellular viral replication without affecting cell viability.

Theoretical and functional analysis of the SIV fusion peptide.

The fusion domain of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) envelope glycoproteins is a hydrophobic region located at the amino-terminal extremity of the transmembrane protein (gp32). Assuming an alpha helical structure for the SIV fusogenic domain of gp32 in a lipid environment, theoretical studies have predicted that the fusion peptide would insert obliquely in the lipid bilayer. This oblique insertion could be an initial step of the fusion process by disorganizing locally the structure of the lipid bilayer. We have tested this hypothesis by selectively mutagenizing the SIV gp160 expressed via a vaccinia virus vector, to alter the theoretical angle of insertion of the fusion peptide. The fusogenic activity of the wild-type and mutant glycoproteins was tested after infection of T4 lymphocytic cell lines by the recombinant vaccinia virus, and measure of syncytia formation. Mutations that modified the oblique orientation reduced the fusogenic activity. In contrast, mutations that conserve the oblique orientation did not alter the fusogenic properties. Our results support the hypothesis that oblique orientation is important for fusogenic activity.

Production and of monoclonal antibodies to simian immunodeficiency virus envelope glycoproteins.

Eighteen monoclonal antibodies (MAb) to simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) envelope have been characterized. All MAb were shown to bind to viral antigens on the surface of unfixed SIV-infected cells and to precipitate surface glycoproteins of SIVmac251. In Western blot 11 MAb bound to gp160 and gp120, five bound to gp160 and the transmembrane protein gp41 and two MAb did not react with denatured antigen. Preliminary competition assays identified the existence of six competition groups; two groups were within gp41 and four were within gp120. Of the latter four groups, three contained MAb with neutralizing activity. Two of the neutralizing MAb (KK5 and KK9) did not react with denatured antigen in Western blot suggesting that they may recognize conformational epitopes. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent-assay titres of MAb against SIVmac251 ranged from 10(2.4) to 10(5.6) and although similar titres were obtained with some MAb against other SIV and HIV antigens, the presence of isolate specific and shared group epitopes was demonstrated.

An HIV-1 and HIV-2 cross-reactive cytotoxic T-cell epitope.

The HLA-B27-restricted HIV gag cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) epitope, 265-279, is highly conserved amongst HIV-1 isolates, only one, HIV-1ELI, having a single amino acid substitution. Over the same region HIV-2 differs by five amino acids. As a broadly cross-protective AIDS vaccine should protect against infection from all isolates of HIV-1 and HIV-2, we tested CTL specific for the HIV-1 265-279 epitope with peptide analogues from HIV-1ELI, HIV-2 and two simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) isolates, and with recombinant vaccinia viruses expressing the respective gag genes, to determine whether there was any cross-reactivity for this CTL epitope. CTL from the HIV-1-infected donor could recognize the HIV-1ELI peptide, the HIV-2 peptide and recombinant vaccinia virus-infected target and one of the two SIV peptide-treated targets. Epitopes that exhibit such cross-reactivity may be valuable in vaccine design.

Association of antibodies blocking HIV-1 gp 160-sCD4 attachment with virus neutralizing activity in human sera.

Sera, from HIV-1 and HIV-2 seropositive individuals, were tested for the presence of antibodies able to inhibit the binding (BI) of HIV-IIIB gp 160 (produced in mammalian cells using a vaccinia expression system) to the extracellular portion of the CD4 receptor. A competition enzyme immunoassay (EIA) with soluble CD4 (sCD4) was used. BI antibodies were highly prevalent among HIV-1 seropositives but not in HIV-2 infected individuals. Attempts to localize the binding site for these BI antibodies on the primary sequence of gp 120 by using synthetic peptides encompassing the putative CD4 binding site on gp 120 (aa 397-439) were not successful. This study did not reveal a significant correlation between the presence of BI antibodies and disease evolution. BI antibody titres correlated less well with anti-gp 160 titres (r = 0.51, P less than or equal to 0.011) than with neutralizing antibody (NA) titres using either the isolates HIV-SF2 (SF2) (r = 0.77, P less than or equal to 0.000) and HIV-MN (MN) (r = 0.61, P less than or equal to 0.002) or the isolate HIV-IIIB (HX10) (r = 0.89, P less than or equal to 0.000) of which the gp 160 for the assays was derived. An HIV-IIIB neutralizing serum, elicited in a rabbit by immunization with a 17-mer synthetic peptide derived from the third variable domain (V3) of gp 120, did bind gp 160 without inhibiting the subsequent attachment of sCD4 to gp 160.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Assembly and release of HIV-1 precursor Pr55gag virus-like particles from recombinant baculovirus-infected insect cells.

The unprocessed Gag precursor from HIV-1, when expressed in recombinant baculovirus-infected insect cells, is targeted to the plasma membrane and assembles in 100-120 nm particles budding from the cell surface. This process mimics HIV immature particle formation and is dependent on myristoylation of the N-terminal glycine, as deletion of the latter results in particle accumulation in the cytoplasm and, interestingly, in the nucleus, pointing to a potential role of this non-fatty-acid-acylated species in the viral life cycle. Inclusion of the pol gene in the construct results in efficient processing of Pr55gag and a pronounced decrease in particle formation. Deletion of the C terminus (p16) of the Gag precursor, including the finger domains, abolishes particle assembly, but membrane targeting and evagination still occur. Heterologous expression in insect cells may prove very useful for the study of the molecular events leading to retroviral particle morphogenesis.

The GAG precursor of simian immunodeficiency virus assembles into virus-like particles.

To examine the potential role of the GAG precursor polyprotein in morphogenesis and assembly of the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), we have expressed the gag gene of SIVMac using a baculovirus expression vector. Infection of insect cells with recombinant virus containing the entire gag gene results in high expression of the GAG precursor protein, Pr57gag. The recombinant protein is myristylated and is released in the culture supernatant in an insoluble particulate form. A point mutation in the N-terminal glycine codon (Gly----Ala) inhibits myristylation. This mutated product is highly expressed but is not found in the culture supernatant. Electron microscopy and immunogold labelling of infected cells show that the native Pr57gag protein assembles into 100-120 nm virus-like particles that bud from the cell plasma membrane and are released in the culture supernatant. The unmyristylated protein also assembles into particulate structures which only accumulate inside the cells. These results demonstrate that the unprocessed GAG precursor of SIV can spontaneously assemble into particles in the absence of other viral proteins. Myristylation of the Pr57gag precursor is necessary for its association with the cell plasma membrane, for budding and for extracellular release.

Several antigenic determinants exposed on the gp120 moiety of HIV-1 gp160 are hidden on the mature gp120.

Mouse mAb reactive to the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein precursor gp160 of the HTLVIII(B) isolate were characterized in radioimmunoprecipitation and immunoblot tests with the use of HTLVIII(B) isolate as Ag. The reactivities of these mAb were also measured in a capture enzyme immunoassay and in radioimmunoprecipitation assay by using gp160 and gp120 expressed as vaccinia recombinants. Striking differences in exposure of specific epitopes were noted between the gp120 component of the gp160 precursor and the fully processed gp120 in both tests. These conformational rearrangements affecting the gp120 moiety of the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein might have important implications on its immunogenicity.