Increasing the Strain Resistance of Si/SiO2 Interfaces for Flexible Electronics.

Understanding the changes that occur in the micro-mechanical properties of semiconductor materials is of utmost importance for the design of new flexible electronic devices, especially to control the properties of newly designed materials. In this work, we present the design, fabrication, and application of a novel tensile-testing device coupled to FTIR measurements that enables in situ atomic investigations of samples under uniaxial tensile load. The device allows for mechanical studies of rectangular samples with dimensions of 30 mm × 10 mm × 0.5 mm. By recording the alternation in dipole moments, the investigation of fracture mechanisms becomes feasible. Our results show that thermally treated SiO2 on silicon wafers has a higher strain resistance and breaking force than the SiO2 native oxide. The FTIR spectra of the samples during the unloading step indicate that for the native oxide sample, the fracture happened following the propagation of cracks from the surface into the silicon wafer. On the contrary, for the thermally treated samples, the crack growth starts from the deepest region of the oxide and propagates along the interface due to the change in the interface properties and redistribution of the applied stress. Finally, density functional theory calculations of model surfaces were conducted in order to unravel the differences in optic and electronic properties of the interfaces with and without applied stress.

Antibacterial Inorganic Coating of Calcium Silicate Hydrate Substrates by Copper Incorporation.

Under environmental conditions, biofilms can oftentimes be found on different surfaces, accompanied by the structural degradation of the substrate. Since high-copper-content paints were banned in the EU, a solution for the protection of these surfaces has to be found. In addition to hydrophobation, making the surfaces inherently biofilm-repellent is a valid strategy. We want to accomplish this via the metal exchange in calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) substrates with transition metals. As has been shown with Europium, even small amounts of metal can have a great influence on the material properties. To effectively model CSH surfaces, ultrathin CSH films were grown on silicon wafers using Ca(OH)2 solutions. Subsequently, copper was incorporated as an active component via ion exchange. Biofilm development is quantified using a multiple-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain described as a strong biofilm former cultivated in the culture medium for 24 h. Comprehensive structural and chemical analyses of the substrates are done by environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), transmission Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS). Results do not show any structural deformation of the substrates by the incorporation of the Cu combined with three-dimensional (3D) homogeneous distribution. While the copper-free CSH phase shows a completely random distribution of the bacteria in biofilms, the samples with copper incorporation reveal lower bacterial colonization of the modified surfaces with an enhanced cluster formation.

Interactions between Reduced Graphene Oxide with Monomers of (Calcium) Silicate Hydrates: A First-Principles Study.

Graphene is a two-dimensional material, with exceptional mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties. Graphene-based materials are, therefore, excellent candidates for use in nanocomposites. We investigated reduced graphene oxide (rGO), which is produced easily by oxidizing and exfoliating graphite in calcium silicate hydrate (CSHs) composites, for use in cementitious materials. The density functional theory was used to study the binding of moieties, on the rGO surface (e.g., hydroxyl-OH/rGO and epoxide/rGO groups), to CSH units, such as silicate tetrahedra, calcium ions, and OH groups. The simulations indicate complex interactions between OH/rGO and silicate tetrahedra, involving condensation reactions and selective repairing of the rGO lattice to reform pristine graphene. The condensation reactions even occurred in the presence of calcium ions and hydroxyl groups. In contrast, rGO/CSH interactions remained close to the initial structural models of the epoxy rGO surface. The simulations indicate that specific CSHs, containing rGO with different interfacial topologies, can be manufactured using coatings of either epoxide or hydroxyl groups. The results fill a knowledge gap, by establishing a connection between the chemical compositions of CSH units and rGO, and confirm that a wet chemical method can be used to produce pristine graphene by removing hydroxyl defects from rGO.

CO adsorption on the calcite(10.4) surface: a combined experimental and theoretical study.

Detailed information on structural, chemical, and physical properties of natural cleaved (10.4) calcite surfaces was obtained by a combined atomic force microscopy (AFM) and infrared (IR) study using CO as a probe molecule under ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) conditions. The structural quality of the surfaces was determined using non-contact AFM (NC-AFM), which also allowed assigning the adsorption site of CO molecules. Vibrational frequencies of adsorbed CO species were determined by polarization-resolved infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS). At low exposures, adsorption of CO on the freshly cleaved (10.4) calcite surface at a temperature of 62 K led to the occurrence of a single C-O vibrational band located at 2175.8 cm-1, blue-shifted with respect to the gas phase value. For larger exposures, a slight, coverage-induced redshift was observed, leading to a frequency of 2173.4 cm-1 for a full monolayer. The width of the vibrational bands is extremely small, providing strong evidence that the cleaved calcite surface is well-defined with only one CO adsorption site. A quantitative analysis of the IRRA spectra recorded at different surface temperatures revealed a CO binding energy of -0.31 eV. NC-AFM data acquired at 5 K for sub-monolayer CO coverage reveal single molecules imaged as depressions at the position of the protruding surface features, in agreement with the IRRAS results. Since there are no previous experimental data of this type, the interpretation of the results was aided by employing density functional theory calculations to determine adsorption geometries, binding energies, and vibrational frequencies of carbon monoxide on the (10.4) calcite surface. It was found that the preferred geometry of CO on this surface is adsorption on top of calcium in a slightly tilted orientation. With increased coverage, the binding energy shows a small decrease, revealing the presence of repulsive adsorbate-adsorbate interactions.

Exchange Reactions at Mineral Interfaces.

Exchange reactions are a family of chemical reactions that appear when mineral surfaces come into contact with protic solvents. Exchange reactions can also be understood as a unique interaction at mineral interfaces. Particularly significant interactions occurring at mineral surfaces are those with water and CO2. The rather complex process occurring when minerals such as calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) phases come into contact with aqueous environments is referred to as a metal-proton exchange reaction (MPER). This process leads to the leaching of calcium ions from the near-surface region, the first step in the corrosion of cement-bound materials. Among the various corrosion reactions of C-S-H phases, the MPER appears to be the most important one. A promising approach to bridging certain problems caused by MPER and carbonation is the passivation of C-S-H surfaces. Today, such passivation is reached, for instance, by the functionalization of C-S-H surfaces with water-repelling organic films. Unfortunately, these organic films are weak against temperature and especially weak against abrasion. Exchange reactions at mineral interfaces allow the preparation of intrinsic, hydrophobic surfaces of C-S-H phases just at room temperature via a metal-metal exchange reaction.

Formation and Stability of Nontoxic Perovskite Precursor.

Strontium, calcium, and magnesium silicate hydrate phases are synthesized by the reaction between silica and solution of metal hydroxides. The kinetics of the reaction is recorded using a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM), continuously monitoring the change in frequency and dissipation energy. Based on QCM results, it is shown that properties of solutions like the pH-value or the type of ions play a pivotal function on the rate-determining stage of the reaction, the thickness of the diffuse layer, the formation of carbonates, as well as the kinetics of the formed phases. Further properties of the reaction products are investigated using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and infrared spectroscopy (IR). With the help of thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and temperature-dependent X-ray diffraction (XRD), we investigate how our synthesized phases can be turned into MSiO3 structures. Finally, the Goldschmidt rules for perovskites structures show that this might be an attractive way for new and nontoxic phases in the future.

Electrically Conductive, Monolithic Metal-Organic Framework-Graphene (MOF@G) Composite Coatings.

We present a novel approach to produce a composite of the HKUST-1 metal-organic framework (MOF) and graphene, which is suited for the fabrication of monolithic coatings of solid substrates. In order to avoid the degradation of graphene electrical properties resulting from chemical functionalization (e.g., oxidation yielding graphene oxide, GO), commercial, nonmodified graphene was utilized. The one-pot synthesis of the moldable composite material allows for a controllable loading of graphene and the tuning of porosity. Potentially, this facile synthesis can be transferred to other MOF systems. The monolithic coatings reported here exhibit high surface areas (1156-1078 m2/g). The electrical conductivity was high (a range of 7.6 × 10-6 S m-1to 6.4 × 10-1 S m-1) and was found to be proportional to the graphene content. The ability to readily attain different forms and shapes of the conductive, microporous composites indicates that the MOF@G system can provide a compelling approach to access various applications of MOFs, specifically in electrochemical catalysis, supercapacitors, and sensors.

Hydration of Concrete: The First Steps.

Concrete is the most important construction material used by mankind and, at the same time, one of the most complex substances known in materials science. Since this mineral compound is highly porous, a better understanding of its surface chemistry, and in particular the reaction with water, is urgently required to understand and avoid corrosion of infrastructure like buildings and bridges. We have gained insight into proton transfer from concrete upon contact with water by applying the so-called Surface Science approach to a well-defined mineral, Wollastonite. Data from IR (infrared) spectroscopy reveal that exposure of this calcium-silicate (CS) substrate to H2 O leads to dissociation and the formation of OH-species. This proton transfer is a chemical reaction of key importance, since on the one hand it triggers the conversion of cement into concrete (a calcium-silicate-hydrate phase), but on the other hand also governs the corrosion of concrete. Interestingly, we find that no proton transfer takes place when the same surface is exposed to methanol. In order to understand this unexpected difference, the analysis of the spectroscopic data obtained was aided by a detailed, first-principles computational study employing density functional theory (DFT). The combined experimental and theoretical effort allows derivation of a consistent picture of proton transfer reactions occurring in CS and CSH phases. Implications for strategies to protect this backbone of urban infrastructure from corrosion in harsh, aqueous environments will be discussed.

Nanopatterning of Group V Elements for Tailoring the Electronic Properties of Semiconductors by Monolayer Doping.

Control of the electronic properties of semiconductors is primarily achieved through doping. While scaling down the device dimensions to the molecular regime presents an increasing number of difficulties, doping control at the nanoscale is still regarded as one of the major challenges of the electronic industry. Within this context, new techniques such as monolayer doping (MLD) represent a substantial improvement toward surface doping with atomic and specific doping dose control at the nanoscale. Our previous work has explained in detail the atomistic mechanism behind MLD by means of density-functional theory calculations (Chem. Mater. 2016, 28, 1975). Here, we address the key questions that will ultimately allow one to optimize the scalability of the MLD process. First, we show that dopant coverage control cannot be achieved by simultaneous reaction of several group V elements, but stepwise reactions make it possible. Second, using ab initio molecular dynamics, we investigate the thermal decomposition of the molecular precursors, together with the stability of the corresponding binary and ternary dopant oxides, prior to the dopant diffusion into the semiconductor surface. Finally, the effect of the coverage and type of dopant on the electronic properties of the semiconductor is also analyzed. Furthermore, the atomistic characterization of the MLD process raises unexpected questions regarding possible crystal damage effects by dopant exchange with the semiconductor ions or the final distribution of the doping impurities within the crystal structure. By combining all our results, optimization recipes to create ultrashallow doped junctions at the nanoscale are finally proposed.

Impact of Intrinsic Structural Properties on the Hydration of 2:1 Layer Silicates.

Several 2:1 layer silicates comprising di- and trioctahedral smectites of different layer charge between 0.2 and 0.4 per formula unit and a trioctahedral vermiculite were studied by an in situ method that allowed Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra and water vapor sorption isotherms to be obtained simultaneously. The particle size and shape of the selected materials were determined using X-ray diffraction and gas adsorption analyses, which provided an estimate of the particle size with resulting edge site proportion. The aim of this study was to elucidate the hydration mechanism in 2:1 layer silicates during desorption and adsorption of water vapor. Domains in the desorption and adsorption of water vapor of the smectite samples with a slightly increasing slope were explained by a heterogeneous layer charge distribution, which enables the coexistence of different hydration states even under controlled conditions. Whereas hysteresis was observed over the entire isothermal range of the smectites, the isotherm of the vermiculite sample only showed hysteresis in the transition from the monohydrated state (1W) to the bihydrated state (2W). We also revealed that hysteresis is a function of the layer charge distribution, the achieved water content, and the particle size with resulting edge site contribution. Increasing the edge site proportions led to an increased hysteresis. The findings from the experimental FTIR/gravimetric analysis showed that the transition from 2W to 1W and backward is visible using infrared spectroscopy. The shifting of δ(H-O-H) was influenced by the layer charge and octahedral substitutions. As a final point, we use water as a sensor molecule to describe the OH groups of the octahedral sheet and show that the observed shifts result from a change in the tilting angle. Our experimental results were supported by ab initio thermodynamic simulations that revealed the different shifting behavior of δ(H-O-H) and δ(M x+-OH-N y+) related to the differences in surface charge density and octahedral compositions.

Calcium Silicate Phases Explained by High-Temperature-Resistant Phosphate Probe Molecules.

In this work, high-temperature-resistant phosphate molecules are applied to characterize ultrathin (100 nm) calcium silicate (C-S) phases. These C-S phases are synthesized on silicon wafers, and the interaction of phosphates with the C-S phases is studied by means of in situ transmission Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. At room temperature, the chemistry of the system is dominated by the formation of calcium phosphates (C-P). In the case of temperature rising to 1000 °C, the C-S phases are regenerated. FTIR results are analyzed on the basis of first-principles calculations and further supported by complementary time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) experiments. This study provides a detailed and self-consistent picture of the chemical and structural properties of interfaces such as the one between the atmosphere and ultrathin C-S phases (gas/C-S) and the one between them and silicon wafers (C-S/Si bulk). The material combination of ultrathin C-S phases grown on silicon wafers might in the future have great potential in selective chemistry, catalysis, and sensing technology as well as in semiconductor manufacturing.

Microscopic structure and properties of discrete water layer in Na-exchanged montmorillonite.

In this work, we focus on the atomic structure of the water interlayer of Na-exchanged montmorillonite. For two different surface charge densities, namely -0.086 and -0.172 C/m(2), the adsorption process in the presence of water is described by first principles calculations. We describe the interactions and forces for every water molecule entering the interlayer during the swelling process. In particular, the dielectric permittivity of the water interlayer is calculated. Finally, we confirm our results performing ab initio thermodynamics calculations leading to a wide range of realistic experimental scenarios.

Carbonation of wollastonite(001) competing hydration: microscopic insights from ion spectroscopy and density functional theory.

In this paper, we report about the influence of the chemical potential of water on the carbonation reaction of wollastonite (CaSiO3) as a model surface of cement and concrete. Total energy calculations based on density functional theory combined with kinetic barrier predictions based on nudge elastic band method show that the exposure of the water-free wollastonite surface to CO2 results in a barrier-less carbonation. CO2 reacts with the surface oxygen and forms carbonate (CO3(2-)) complexes together with a major reconstruction of the surface. The reaction comes to a standstill after one carbonate monolayer has been formed. In case one water monolayer is covering the wollastonite surface, the carbonation is no more barrier-less, yet ending in a localized monolayer. Covered with multilayers of water, the thermodynamic ground state of the wollastonite completely changes due to a metal-proton exchange reaction (also called early stage hydration) and Ca(2+) ions are partially removed from solid phase into the H2O/wollastonite interface. Mobile Ca(2+) reacts again with CO2 and forms carbonate complexes, ending in a delocalized layer. By means of high-resolution time-of-flight secondary-ion mass spectrometry images, we confirm that hydration can lead to a partially delocalization of Ca(2+) ions on wollastonite surfaces. Finally, we evaluate the impact of our model surface results by the meaning of low-energy ion-scattering spectroscopy combined with careful discussion about the competing reactions of carbonation vs hydration.

Recovery of nonwetting characteristics by surface modification of gallium-based liquid metal droplets using hydrochloric acid vapor.

The applicability of gallium-based liquid metal alloy has been limited by the oxidation problem. In this paper, we report a simple method to remove the oxide layer on the surface of such alloy to recover its nonwetting characteristics, using hydrochloric acid (HCl) vapor. Through the HCl vapor treatment, we successfully restored the nonwetting characteristics of the alloy and suppressed its viscoelasticity. We analyzed the change of surface chemistry before and after the HCl vapor treatment using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and low-energy ion-scattering spectroscopy (LEIS). Results showed that the oxidized surface of the commercial gallium-based alloy Galinstan (Ga(2)O(3) and Ga(2)O) was replaced with InCl(3) and GaCl(3) after the treatment. Surface tension and static contact angle on a Teflon-coated glass of the HCl-vapor-treated Galinstan were measured to be 523.8 mN/m and 152.5°. A droplet bouncing test was successfully carried out to demonstrate the nonwetting characteristics of the HCl-vapor-treated Galinstan. Finally, the stability of the transformed surface of the HCl-vapor-treated Galinstan was investigated by measuring the contact angle and LEIS spectra after reoxidation in an ambient environment.

Controlled, low-coverage metal oxide activation of silicon for organic functionalization: unraveling the phosphonate bond.

Deposition of thin films and grafting of organic molecules on semiconductor surfaces, particularly oxide surfaces, are widely studied as means of passivation and functionalization for a variety of applications. However, organic functionalization of silicon oxide is challenging, as the currently used molecules (silanes and phosphonates) do not form layers that are stable in aqueous environments and present challenges during the grafting process. For instance, the chemical grafting of phosphonates requires high temperature (140 °C) to perform. Modification of SiO(2) surfaces with metal oxides is an attractive alternative since strong bonds can be established between metal oxides and relevant molecules (silanes, phosphonates). While such modification is possible using vapor-phase methods, such as atomic layer deposition and physical vapor-phase deposition, wet chemical processing is inexpensive and technologically very attractive. We describe here a simple wet chemical method to deposit an ultrathin layer of metal oxide/hydroxide groups. Further, using a model surface with exactly one-third monolayer OH groups on oxide-free Si surfaces, the precise adsorption geometry on single Al(OH)(3) groups is shown to be bidentate, and the distance between the Al and P atoms is determined to be the main influencing parameter for a thermodynamically stable formation of the Al-O-P bond.

Activation of surface hydroxyl groups by modification of H-terminated Si(111) surfaces.

Chemical functionalization of semiconductor surfaces, particularly silicon oxide, has enabled many technologically important applications (e.g., sensing, photovoltaics, and catalysis). For such processes, hydroxyl groups terminating the oxide surface constitute the primary reaction sites. However, their reactivity is often poor, hindering technologically important processes, such as surface phosphonation requiring a lengthy postprocessing annealing step at 140 °C with poor control of the bonding geometry. Using a novel oxide-free surface featuring a well-defined nanopatterned OH coverage, we demonstrate that hydroxyl groups on oxide-free silicon are more reactive than on silicon oxide. On this model surface, we show that a perfectly ordered layer of monodentate phosphonic acid molecules is chemically grafted at room temperature, and explain why it remains completely stable in aqueous environments, in contrast to phosphonates grafted on silicon oxides. This fundamental understanding of chemical activity and surface stability suggests new directions to functionalize silicon for sensors, photovoltaic devices, and nanoelectronics.

Environment-controlled tethering by aggregation and growth of phosphonic acid monolayers on silicon oxide.

Phosphonic acid monolayers are being considered as versatile surface modification agents due to their unique ability to attach to surfaces in different configurations, including mono-, bi-, or even tridentate arrangements. Tethering by aggregation and growth (T-BAG) of octadecylphosphonic acid (ODPA) on silicon oxide surfaces has proven to be a robust method to establish a strong chemical bond. However, it requires a long processing time (> 48 h) that is a substantial drawback for industrial applications. We demonstrate here that the humidity level during processing is the most important parameter controlling the reaction. Using in situ Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), we first show that the initially physisorbed layer obtained upon immersion in ODPA is composed of well-ordered bilayers and only reacts with the SiO(2) surface at 140 °C. Importantly, we show that the presence of water at the interface (determined by the humidity level) greatly influences the reaction time and completion. In humid environments (relative humidity, RH > 40%), there is no reaction, while in dry environments (RH < 16%), the reaction is essentially instantaneous at 140 °C. Ab initio calculations and modeling confirm that the degree of chemical reaction with the surface OH groups depends on the chemical potential (i.e., concentration) of interfacial water molecules. These findings provide a workable modification of the traditional T-BAG method consistent with many industrial applications.

Understanding the preferential adsorption of CO2 over N2 in a flexible metal-organic framework.

The unusual uptake behavior and preferential adsorption of CO(2) over N(2) are investigated in a flexible metal-organic framework system, Zn(2)(bdc)(2)(bpee), where bpdc = 4,4'-biphenyl dicarboxylate and bpee = 1,2-bis(4-pyridyl)ethylene, using Raman and IR spectroscopy. The results indicate that the interaction of CO(2) with the framework induces a twisting of one of its ligands, which is possible because of the type of connectivity of the carboxylate end group of the ligand to the metal center and the specific interaction of CO(2) with the framework. The flexibility of the bpee pillars allows the structure to respond to the twisting, fostering the adsorption of more CO(2). DFT calculations support the qualitative picture derived from the experimental analysis. The adsorption sites at higher loading have been identified using a modified van der Waals-Density Functional Theory method, showing that the more energetically favorable positions for the CO(2) molecules are closer to the C═C bond of the bpee and the C-C bond of the bpdc ligands instead of the benzene and pyridine rings of these ligands. These findings are consistent with changes observed using Raman spectroscopy, which is useful for detecting both specific guest-host interactions and structural changes in the framework.

Interface chemistry and molecular interactions of phosphonic acid self-assembled monolayers on oxyhydroxide-covered aluminum in humid environments.

Barrier properties of self-assembled octadecylphosphonic acid (ODPA) monolayers on plasma-modified oxyhydroxide-covered aluminum surfaces were analyzed by means of in situ photoelastic modulated infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (PM-IRRAS). The surface hydroxyl density prior to ODPA adsorption was increased by means of a low-temperature H(2)O-plasma treatment. Adsorption isotherms of H(2)O on ODPA self-assembled monolayer (SAM) modified surfaces in comparison to bare oxide covered aluminum surfaces showed that the ODPA SAM leads to a strongly reduced amount of adsorbed water based on the inability of water to form hydrogen bonds to the low-energy aliphatic surface. However, the ODPA SAM covered surfaces did not show a significant inhibition of the H(2)O/D(2)O isotope exchange reaction between the D(2)O gas phase and the hydroxyl groups of the aluminum oxyhydroxide film, as the interfacial layer between the ODPA SAM and the metal substrate, while the interfacial phosphonate group as well as the orientation of the SAM is not affected by the adsorption of water. It can be followed that the strong adhesion promoting and high corrosion resistances of organophosphonate monolayers on oxyhydroxide-covered aluminum is a result of the strong acid-base interaction of the phosphonate headgroup with the Al ions in the oxyhydroxide film, even in the presence of high interfacial water activity and the molecular interactions of the aliphatic chains. However, the barrier effect of such monolayers on the transport of water is negligible.

Single molecule desorption studies on immobilized nanoclay particle surfaces.

AFM-based single molecule force spectroscopy was performed on sheetlike inorganic particles of Na-montmorillonite to study the pH-dependent adsorption and desorption behavior of polyelectrolytes in aqueous solutions. Polyallylamine macromolecules were covalently attached on gold-coated AFM cantilevers. Heterogeneous surfaces were formed by immobilizing the nanoclay sheets on mica-stripped ultraflat Au(111) surfaces using aminothiol chemistry. Because of the constant surface charge of the particles over a wide pH range, polymer line charge density was the only parameter that affected the adsorption and desorption behavior when the ionic concentration was kept constant. Polarization modulation infrared-reflection absorption spectroscopy (PM-IRRAS) was performed on cast polyallylamine films to study the pH-dependent charge density of polyallylamine molecules. A good correlation was found between the line charge density and the adsorption characteristics of polyallylamine.