The harm hypothesis: How perceived harm to women shapes reactions to research on sex differences.

Past research suggests that reactions to research on sex differences are often less positive when the findings put men in a better light than women, especially when the lead researcher is a man. The factors underlying this effect, however, are not yet fully understood. The present study aimed to provide the first experimental test of the hypothesis that the key variable is perceived harm to women. Participants (214 men and 219 women) evaluated a bogus popular-science article reporting fictional research finding either a female- or a male-favouring sex difference in intelligence, attributed to either a female or a male lead researcher. To examine the effects of perceived harm, the introduction to the task highlighted either the potential benefits or potential drawbacks of sex-differences research in general. Consistent with past research, participants reacted less positively to the male-favouring difference, especially for male-led research. Consistent with the harm hypothesis, the effect was stronger after highlighting the potential drawbacks of sex-differences research than after highlighting the potential benefits. Our findings suggest that perceptions of harm to women underpin the aversion to male-favouring findings.

Polygamous Interest in a Mononormative Nation: The Roles of Sex and Sociosexuality in Polygamous Interest in a Heterosexual Sample from the UK.

Polygamy is a form of "one-sided" consensually non-monogamous relationship where one person has multiple committed partners, each of whom is only involved with that one person. It was likely a reoccurring feature of ancestral mating that posed adaptive problems for our ancestors. Yet polygamy, and multi-partnering more generally, is understudied in Western cultures, raising questions about the existence of polygamous interest and whether this is calibrated adaptively to personal conditions. In two studies, we examined polygamous interest in two heterosexual online samples from the UK. In Study 1 (N = 393), modest interest was found for polygamous relationships overall. Men were six times more open to polygyny than women, but there was little sex difference in openness to polyandry. Further analysis revealed that all forms of multi-partnering were undesirable relative to singlehood and monogamy; however, consensual multi-partner relationships were less undesirable than non-consensual ones. Sex differences were largest for polygyny and arrangements where men had agreed access to a casual partner alongside a committed one, yet these were two of the most acceptable forms of multi-partnering when men and women's responses were combined. Sociosexuality positively predicted interest in most forms of multi-partnering. Study 2 (N = 735) focused on polygyny and added status-linked traits as predictors. The results of Study 1 were broadly replicated, though the status-linked traits did not predict polygynous interest specifically. Instead, sociosexuality and male intrasexual competitiveness uniquely predicted general interest in multi-partner relationships. Overall, interest in polygamy appears to emerge despite social discouragement and sex differences in interest track the relative costs and benefits associated with it. However, there is no strong evidence that polygamous interest is uniquely calibrated to personal conditions when compared to other forms of multi-partnering.

The Mating Psychology of Incels (Involuntary Celibates): Misfortunes, Misperceptions, and Misrepresentations.

Mating represents a suite of fundamental adaptive problems for humans. Yet a community of men, called incels (involuntary celibates), forge their identity around their perceived inability to solve these problems. Many incels engage in misogynistic online hostility, and there are concerns about violence stemming from the community. Despite significant media speculation about the potential mating psychology of incels, this has yet to be formally investigated in the scientific literature. In the first formal investigation of incel mating psychology, we compared a sample (n = 151) of self-identified male incels with non-incel single males (n = 149). Findings revealed that incels have a lower sense of self-perceived mate-value and a greater external locus of control regarding their singlehood. Contrary to mainstream media narratives, incels also reported lower minimum standards for mate preferences than non-incels. Incels (and non-incel single men) significantly overestimated the importance of physical attractiveness and financial prospects to women, and underestimated the importance of intelligence, kindness, and humor. Furthermore, incels underestimated women's overall minimum mate preference standards. Our findings suggest that incels should be targeted for interventions to challenge cognitive distortions around female mate preferences. Implications for incels' mental health and misogynistic attitudes are discussed, as well as directions for future research.

Elucidating the Mechanism of Self-Healing in Hydrogel-Lead Halide Perovskite Composites for Use in Photovoltaic Devices.

Since the emergence of organometal halide perovskite (OMP) solar cells, there has been growing interest in the benefits of incorporating polymer additives into the perovskite precursor, in terms of both photovoltaic device performance and perovskite stability. In addition, there is interest in the self-healing properties of polymer-incorporated OMPs, but the mechanisms behind these enhanced characteristics are still not fully understood. Here, we study the role of poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (pHEMA) in improving the stability of methylammonium lead iodide (MAPI, CH3NH3PbI3) and determine a mechanism for the self-healing of the perovskite-polymer composite following exposure to atmospheres of differing relative humidity, using photoelectron spectroscopy. Varying concentrations of pHEMA (0-10 wt %) are incorporated into a PbI2 precursor solution during the conventional two-step fabrication method for producing MAPI. It is shown that the introduction of pHEMA results in high-quality MAPI films with increased grain size and reduced PbI2 concentration compared with pure MAPI films. Devices based on pHEMA-MAPI composites exhibit an improved photoelectric conversion efficiency of 17.8%, compared with 16.5% for a pure MAPI device. pHEMA-incorporated devices are found to retain 95.4% of the best efficiency after ageing for 1500 h in 35% RH, compared with 68.5% achieved from the pure MAPI device. The thermal and moisture tolerance of the resulting films is investigated using X-ray diffraction, in situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and hard XPS (HAXPES). It is found that exposing the pHEMA films to cycles of 70 and 20% relative humidity leads to a reversible degradation, via a self-healing process. Angle-resolved HAXPES depth-profiling using a non-destructive Ga Kα source shows that pHEMA is predominantly present at the surface with an effective thickness of ca. 3 nm. It is shown using XPS that this effective thickness reduces with increasing temperature. It is found that N is trapped in this surface layer of pHEMA, suggesting that N-containing moieties, produced during reaction with water at high humidity, are trapped in the pHEMA film and can be reincorporated into the perovskite when the humidity is reduced. XPS results also show that the inclusion of pHEMA enhances the thermal stability of MAPI under both UHV and 9 mbar water vapor pressure.

Examining the Sexual Double Standards and Hypocrisy in Partner Suitability Appraisals Within a Norwegian Sample.

Sexual double standards are social norms that impose greater social opprobrium on women versus men or that permit one sex greater sexual freedom than the other. This study examined sexual double standards when choosing a mate based on their sexual history. Using a novel approach, participants (N = 923, 64% women) were randomly assigned to make evaluations in long-term or short-term mating contexts and asked how a prospective partner's sexual history would influence their own likelihood of having sex (short-term) or entering a relationship (long-term) with them. They were then asked how the same factors would influence the appraisal they would make of male and female friends in a similar position. We found no evidence of traditional sexual double standards for promiscuous or sexually undesirable behavior. There was some evidence for small sexual double standard for self-stimulation, but this was in the opposite direction to that predicted. There was greater evidence for sexual hypocrisy as sexual history tended to have a greater negative impact on suitor assessments for the self rather than for same-sex friends. Sexual hypocrisy effects were more prominent in women, though the direction of the effects was the same for both sexes. Overall, men were more positive about women's self-stimulation than women wee, particularly in short-term contexts. Socially undesirable sexual behavior (unfaithfulness, mate poaching, and jealous/controlling) had a large negative impact on appraisals of a potential suitor across all contexts and for both sexes. Effects of religiosity, disgust, sociosexuality, and question order effects are considered.

Phyto-synthesized facile Pd/NiOPdO ternary nanocomposite for electrochemical supercapacitor applications.

Sustainable and effective electrochemical materials for supercapacitors are greatly needed for solving the global problems of energy storage. In this regard, a facile nanocomposite of Pd/NiOPdO was synthesized using foliar phyto eco-friendly agents and examined as an electrochemical electrode active material for supercapacitor application. The nanocomposite showed a mixed phase of a ternary nano metal oxide phase of rhombohedral NiO and tetragonal PdO confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and XPS (X-rays photoelectron spectroscopy). The optical (direct) energy value of the synthesized nanocomposite was 3.14 eV. The phyto-functionalized nanocomposite was studied for electrochemical supercapacitor properties and revealed a specific capacitance of 88 F g-1 and low internal resistance of 0.8 Ω. The nanoscale and phyto organic species functionalized nanocomposite exhibited enhanced electrochemical properties for supercapacitor application.

Reactions to research on sex differences: Effect of sex favoured, researcher sex, and importance of sex-difference domain.

Two studies (total N = 778) looked at (1) how people react to research finding a sex difference depending on whether the research puts men or women in a better light and (2) how well people can predict the average man and average woman's reactions. Participants read a fictional popular-science article about fictional research finding either a male- or a female-favouring sex difference. The research was credited to either a male or a female lead researcher. In both studies, both sexes reacted less positively to differences favouring males; in contrast to our earlier research, however, the effect was larger among female participants. Contrary to a widespread expectation, participants did not react less positively to research led by a female. Participants did react less positively, though, to research led by a male when the research reported a male-favouring difference in a highly valued trait. Participants judged male-favouring research to be lower in quality than female-favouring research, apparently in large part because they saw the former as more harmful. In both studies, participants predicted that the average man and woman would exhibit substantial own-sex favouritism, with both sexes predicting more own-sex favouritism from the other sex than the other sex predicted from itself. In making these predictions, participants overestimated women's own-sex favouritism, and got the direction of the effect wrong for men. A greater understanding of the tendency to overestimate gender-ingroup bias could help quell antagonisms between the sexes.

Being More Educated and Earning More Increases Romantic Interest: Data from 1.8 M Online Daters from 24 Nations.

How humans choose their mates is a central feature of adult life and an area of considerable disagreement among relationship researchers. However, few studies have examined mate choice (instead of mate preferences) around the world, and fewer still have considered data from online dating services. Using data from more than 1.8 million online daters from 24 countries, we examined the role of sex and resource-acquisition ability (as indicated by level of education and income) in mate choice using multilevel modeling. We then attempted to understand country-level variance by examining factors such as gender equality and the operational sex ratio. In every nation, a person's resource-acquisition ability was positively associated with the amount of attention they received from other site members. There was a marked sex difference in this effect; resource-acquisition ability improved the attention received by men almost 2.5 times that of women. This sex difference was in every country, admittedly with some variance between nations. Several country-level traits moderated the effects of resource-acquisition ability, and in the case of unemployment this moderating role differed by sex. Overall, country-level effects were more consistent with evolutionary explanations than sociocultural ones. The results suggest a robust effect of resource-acquisition ability on real-life mate choice that transcends international boundaries and is reliably stronger for men than women. Cross-cultural variance in the role of resource-acquisition ability appears sensitive to local competition and gender equality at the country level.

People react more positively to female- than to male-favoring sex differences: A direct replication of a counterintuitive finding.

We report a direct replication of our earlier study looking at how people react to research on sex differences depending on whether the research puts men or women in a better light. Three-hundred-and-three participants read a fictional popular-science article about fabricated research finding that women score higher on a desirable trait/lower on an undesirable one (female-favoring difference) or that men do (male-favoring difference). Consistent with our original study, both sexes reacted less positively to the male-favoring differences, with no difference between men and women in the strength of this effect. Also consistent with our original study, belief in male privilege and a left-leaning political orientation predicted less positive reactions to the male-favoring sex differences; neither variable, however, predicted reactions to the female-favoring sex differences (in the original study, male-privilege belief predicted positive reactions). As well as looking at how participants reacted to the research, we looked at their predictions about how the average man and woman would react. Consistent with our earlier results, participants of both sexes predicted that the average man and woman would exhibit considerable own-sex favoritism. In doing so, they exaggerated the magnitude of the average woman's own-sex favoritism and predicted strong own-sex favoritism from the average man when in fact the average man exhibited modest other-sex favoritism. A greater awareness of people's tendency to exaggerate own-sex bias could help to ameliorate conflict between the sexes.

Laser-Assisted Ultrafast Fabrication of Crystalline Ta-Doped TiO2 for High-Humidity-Processed Perovskite Solar Cells.

A titanium dioxide (TiO2) compact film is a widely used electron transport layer (ETL) for n-i-p planar perovskite solar cells (PSCs). However, TiO2 sufferers from poor electrical conductivity, leading to high energy loss at the perovskite/ETL/transparent conductive oxide interface. Doping the TiO2 film with alkali- and transition-metal elements is an effective way to improve its electrical conductivity. The conventional method to prepare these metal-doped TiO2 films commonly requires time-consuming furnace treatments at 450-600 °C for 30 min to 3 h. Herein, a rapid one-step laser treatment is developed to enable doping of tantalum (Ta) in TiO2 (Ta-TiO2) and to simultaneously induce the crystallization of TiO2 films from its amorphous precursor to an anatase phase. The PSCs based on the Ta-TiO2 films treated with the optimized fiber laser (1070 nm) processing parameters (21 s with a peak processing temperature of 800-850 °C) show enhanced photovoltaic performance in comparison to that of the device fabricated using furnace-treated films at 500 °C for 30 min. The ambient-processed planar PSCs fabricated under high relative humidity (RH) of 50-70% display power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of 18.34% and 16.04% for devices based on Cs0.1FA0.9PbI3 and CH3NH3PbI3 absorbers, respectively. These results are due to the improved physical and chemical properties of the Ta-TiO2 films treated by the optimal laser process in comparison to those for the furnace process. The laser process is rapid, simple, and potentially scalable to produce metal-doped TiO2 films for efficient PSCs.

Sustainable synthesis of organic framework-derived ZnO nanoparticles for fabrication of supercapacitor electrode.

The phytosynthesis of metal oxides nanoparticles (NPs) has been extensively reported; yet mechanism involved and incorporated bioactive compounds in the synthesized NPs are still need to be investigated. In this regard, here an efficient sustainable co-precipitation synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) has been developed, employing hydrothermal reactions, using organic compounds of Nasturtium officinale leaves. Pure hexagonal wurtzite ZnO was identified by X-ray diffraction and NPs in the size range of 50-60 nm were observed by field emission scanning electron microscopy. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy revealed surface modification of ZnO by functional groups associated with the incorporated bio active compounds of Nasturtium officinale. The phyto-functionalized ZnO NPs having anoptical direct band gap of 3.29 eV and optical band gap energy of 2.85 eV were evaluated by cyclic voltammetry at various scan rates, galvanostatic charge-discharge at a range of current densities and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (Z' vs. Z″ and Z vs. frequency) in aqueous electrolyte. The fabricated ZnO-based electrode revealed a specific capacitance of 86.5 F/g at 2 mV/s with 97% coulombic efficiency for 2000 cycles. The good electrochemical conductivity was demonstrated by lower internal resistance of 1.04 Ω. Therefore, the present study suggested the significant potential of organic compounds incorporated ZnO NPs towards supercapacitor.

The effects of sex and outcome expectancies on perceptions of sexual harassment.

Using an outcome expectancy framework, this research sought to understand sex differences in the underlying beliefs that influence harassment perception. One hundred and ninety-six participants (52% women) read a series of vignettes depicting common examples of digital male-on-female sexual harassment. They were asked to what extent they thought each scenario constituted sexual harassment, and how likely the perpetrator would experience positive and negative outcomes. Consistent with predictions, women were more likely to consider the behaviours as harassment than men were. Both sexes harassment perceptions had significant relationships with their outcome expectancies, but we also found evidence of a sex specific moderation; the link between men's negative outcome expectancies was moderated by their positive ones. The results suggest that perceptions of harassment may have sexually asymmetrical underpinnings. Measuring the interplay between positive and negative outcome expectancies in relation to sexual harassment perception is a novel approach, that may have implications for the development of anti-sexual harassment interventions. Implications for theory and future research directions are discussed.

Flexible nanoporous activated carbon for adsorption of organics from industrial effluents.

This paper reports a study involving the formation of a self-assembled polymeric monolayer on the surface of a high surface area activated carbon to engineer its affinity towards organic contaminants. A nanoporous activated carbon cloth with a surface area of ∼1220 m2 g-1 and a pore volume of ∼0.42 cm3 g-1 was produced by chemical impregnation, carbonisation and high-temperature CO2 activation of a commercially available viscose rayon cloth. The subsequent modification with a silane polymer resulted in a nanoscale self-assembled monolayer that made it selective towards organic solvents (contact angle <10°) and repellant towards water (contact angle >145°). The adsorbent showed more than 95% efficiency in the separation of various types of oil/water mixtures under neutral, basic and acidic conditions. Benefiting from inherent nanoscale features, a robust hierarchical structure and a thermally stable monolayer (∼300 °C), this nanoporous adsorbent maintained high efficiency for more than 20 cycles and separated surfactant stabilised emulsion with >92% oil removal efficiency. The adsorbent was studied extensively with a series of advanced characterisation techniques to establish the formation mechanism and performance in emulsion separation. Findings from this work provide crucial insights towards large-scale implementation of surface engineered activated carbon-based materials for a wide range of industrial separation applications.

Role of Alkali Cations in Stabilizing Mixed-Cation Perovskites to Thermal Stress and Moisture Conditions.

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) based on organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites containing a small fraction of substituted alkali-metal cations have shown remarkable performance and stability. However, the role of these cations is unclear. The thermal- and moisture-induced degradation of FA1-xCsxPbI3 and (FA1-xCsx)1-yRbyPbI3 (where FA represents formamidinium, x, y = 0.1, 0.05) is investigated using in situ photoelectron spectroscopy (PES). Both compositions exhibit superior moisture stability compared with methylammonium lead iodide under 9 mbar of water vapor. Ga Kα hard X-ray PES is used to investigate the composition of the perovskites at depths up to 45 nm into the surface. This allows more accurate quantification of the alkali-metal distribution than is possible using conventional X-ray PES. The addition of RbI results in a fairly homogeneous distribution of both Cs+ and Rb+ in the surface layers (in contrast to surface Cs depletion seen in its absence), together with a marked reduction in surface iodide vacancies. Overall, RbI is found to play a critical role in increasing the thermal stability of FA1-xCsxPbI3 by providing a source of I- that fills iodine vacancy sites in the perovskite lattice, while Rb+ is not substantially incorporated into the perovskite. We suggest that the concomitant increase in ion migration barriers in the surface layers is key to improved PSC performance and long-lasting stability.

Current Fertility Status Does Not Predict Sociosexual Attitudes and Desires in Normally Ovulating Women.

Previous research has found that women at peak fertility show greater interest in extra-pair sex. However, recent replications have failed to detect this effect. In this study, we add to this ongoing debate by testing whether sociosexuality (the willingness to have sex in the absence of commitment) is higher in women who are at peak fertility. A sample of normally ovulating women (N = 773) completed a measure of sociosexuality and had their current fertility status estimated using the backward counting method. Contrary to our hypothesis, current fertility was unrelated to sociosexual attitudes and desires, even when relationship status was included as a moderator. These findings raise further doubts about the association between fertility and desire for extra-pair sex.

Bioinspired scaffolds that sequester lead ions in physically damaged high efficiency perovskite solar cells.

Hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (HAP NPs) are blended with TiO2 NPs to prepare mixed mesoporous scaffolds which are used to prepare high efficiency perovskite solar cells (PSCs) with a best power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 20.98%. HAP not only increases the PCE but also limits the concentration of Pb released in water from intentionally broken PSCs by ion sequestration thereby potentially offering a promising in-device fail-safe system.

Facile ZnO-based nanomaterial and its fabrication as a supercapacitor electrode: synthesis, characterization and electrochemical studies.

In recent times, tremendous efforts have been devoted to the efficient and cost-effective advancements of electrochemically active metal oxide nanomaterials. Here, we have synthesized a facile nanomaterial of ZnO@PdO/Pd by employing extracted fuel from E. cognata leaves following a hydrothermal route. The phyto-fueled ZnO@PdO/Pd nanomaterial was fabricated into a supercapacitor electrode and was scrutinized by galvanostatic charge-discharge, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry to evaluate its energy storage potential, and transport of electrons and conductivity. Substantial specific capacitance i.e., 178 F g-1 was obtained in the current study in aKOH electrolyte solution. A specific energy density of 3.7 W h Kg-1 was measured using the charge-discharge data. A high power density of 3718 W Kg-1 was observed for the ZnO@PdO/Pd electrode. Furthermore, the observed low internal resistance of 0.4 Ω suggested effective electron- and ion diffusion. Thus, the superb electrochemical behavior of the ZnO@PdO/Pd nanocomposite was exposed, as verified by the significant redox behavior shown by cyclic voltammetry and galvanostatic charge-discharge.

Reactions to male-favouring versus female-favouring sex differences: A pre-registered experiment and Southeast Asian replication.

Two studies investigated (1) how people react to research describing a sex difference, depending on whether that difference favours males or females, and (2) how accurately people can predict how the average man and woman will react. In Study 1, Western participants (N = 492) viewed a fictional popular-science article describing either a male-favouring or a female-favouring sex difference (i.e., men/women draw better; women/men lie more). Both sexes reacted less positively to the male-favouring differences, judging the findings to be less important, less credible, and more offensive, harmful, and upsetting. Participants predicted that the average man and woman would react more positively to sex differences favouring their own sex. This was true of the average woman, although the level of own-sex favouritism was lower than participants predicted. It was not true, however, of the average man, who - like the average woman - reacted more positively to the female-favouring differences. Study 2 replicated these findings in a Southeast Asian sample (N = 336). Our results are consistent with the idea that both sexes are more protective of women than men, but that both exaggerate the level of same-sex favouritism within each sex - a misconception that could potentially harm relations between the sexes.

Surface Engineering of Ceramic Nanomaterials for Separation of Oil/Water Mixtures.

Oil/water mixtures are a potentially major source of environmental pollution if efficient separation technology is not employed during processing. A large volume of oil/water mixtures is produced via many manufacturing operations in food, petrochemical, mining, and metal industries and can be exposed to water sources on a regular basis. To date, several techniques are used in practice to deal with industrial oil/water mixtures and oil spills such as in situ burning of oil, bioremediation, and solidifiers, which change the physical shape of oil as a result of chemical interaction. Physical separation of oil/water mixtures is in industrial practice; however, the existing technologies to do so often require either dissipation of large amounts of energy (such as in cyclones and hydrocyclones) or large residence times or inventories of fluids (such as in decanters). Recently, materials with selective wettability have gained attention for application in separation of oil/water mixtures and surfactant stabilized emulsions. For example, a superhydrophobic material is selectively wettable toward oil while having a poor affinity for the aqueous phase; therefore, a superhydrophobic porous material can easily adsorb the oil while completely rejecting the water from an oil/water mixture, thus physically separating the two components. The ease of separation, low cost, and low-energy requirements are some of the other advantages offered by these materials over existing practices of oil/water separation. The present review aims to focus on the surface engineering aspects to achieve selectively wettability in materials and its their relationship with the separation of oil/water mixtures with particular focus on emulsions, on factors contributing to their stability, and on how wettability can be helpful in their separation. Finally, the challenges in application of superwettable materials will be highlighted, and potential solutions to improve the application of these materials will be put forward.

Versailles Project on Advanced Materials and Standards interlaboratory study on intensity calibration for x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy instruments using low-density polyethylene.

We report the results of a Versailles Project on Advanced Materials and Standards interlaboratory study on the intensity scale calibration of x-ray photoelectron spectrometers using low-density polyethylene (LDPE) as an alternative material to gold, silver, and copper. An improved set of LDPE reference spectra, corrected for different instrument geometries using a quartz-monochromated Al Kα x-ray source, was developed using data provided by participants in this study. Using these new reference spectra, a transmission function was calculated for each dataset that participants provided. When compared to a similar calibration procedure using the NPL reference spectra for gold, the LDPE intensity calibration method achieves an absolute offset of ∼3.0% and a systematic deviation of ±6.5% on average across all participants. For spectra recorded at high pass energies (≥90 eV), values of absolute offset and systematic deviation are ∼5.8% and ±5.7%, respectively, whereas for spectra collected at lower pass energies (<90 eV), values of absolute offset and systematic deviation are ∼4.9% and ±8.8%, respectively; low pass energy spectra perform worse than the global average, in terms of systematic deviations, due to diminished count rates and signal-to-noise ratio. Differences in absolute offset are attributed to the surface roughness of the LDPE induced by sample preparation. We further assess the usability of LDPE as a secondary reference material and comment on its performance in the presence of issues such as variable dark noise, x-ray warm up times, inaccuracy at low count rates, and underlying spectrometer problems. In response to participant feedback and the results of the study, we provide an updated LDPE intensity calibration protocol to address the issues highlighted in the interlaboratory study. We also comment on the lack of implementation of a consistent and traceable intensity calibration method across the community of x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) users and, therefore, propose a route to achieving this with the assistance of instrument manufacturers, metrology laboratories, and experts leading to an international standard for XPS intensity scale calibration.