Alterations of root architecture and cell wall modifications in Tilia cordata Miller (Linden) growing on mining sludge.

Trees are considered good candidates for phytoremediation of soils contaminated with trace elements (TE), e.g. mine tailings. Using two year-old Tilia cordata plants, we demonstrated the nature and the scale of root architecture, especially root apices, as an indicator of mining sludge toxicity and plant capability to cope with these stress conditions. The novelty of our research is the analysis of the root response to substrate with extremely high concentrations of numerous toxic TE, and the 3D illustration of the disorders in root apex architecture using a clarity technique for confocal microscopy. The analysis demonstrates (1) a marked reduction in the size of the root apex zones (2) the occurrence of vascular tissues abnormally close to the root apex (3) collapse of the internal tissues in many root apices. Simultaneously, at the cellular level we observed some signs of a defensive response - such as a common increase of cell wall (CW) thickness and the formation of local CW thickenings - that enlarge the CW capacity for TE sequestration. However, we also detected harmful effects. Among others, a massive deposition of TE in the middle lamella which caused major damage - probably one of the reasons why the inner tissues of the root apex often collapsed - and the formation of incomplete CWs resulting in the occurrence of extremely large cells. Moreover, many cells of the root apex exhibited degenerated protoplasts. All these alterations indicate the harsh conditions for lime growth and survival and simultaneously, the manifestation of a defensive response. The obtained results allowed us to conclude that analysis of the nature and scale of structural alterations in roots can be useful indicators of plant ability to cope with stress conditions, e.g. in prospect of using the examined plants for reclamation of soils contaminated with TE.

LYR3, a high-affinity LCO-binding protein of Medicago truncatula, interacts with LYK3, a key symbiotic receptor.

LYR3, LYK3, and NFP are lysin motif-containing receptor-like kinases (LysM-RLKs) from Medicago truncatula, involved in perception of symbiotic lipo-chitooligosaccharide (LCO) signals. Here, we show that LYR3, a high-affinity LCO-binding protein, physically interacts with LYK3, a key player regulating symbiotic interactions. In vitro, LYR3 is phosphorylated by the active kinase domain of LYK3. Fluorescence lifetime imaging/Förster resonance energy transfer (FLIM/FRET) experiments in tobacco protoplasts show that the interaction between LYR3 and LYK3 at the plasma membrane is disrupted or inhibited by addition of LCOs. Moreover, LYR3 attenuates the cell death response, provoked by coexpression of NFP and LYK3 in tobacco leaves.

Light microscopy of whole plant organs.

Plants are ideal organisms for light microscopical studies of cellular mechanisms controlling cell organisation and cell functioning. However, most plant organs are not transparent to light which prevents high resolution imaging deep within plant tissues. Classically, access into plant organs is achieved by sectioning or whole-mount tissue clearing. Until recently, the protocols for clearing destroyed the signal from fluorescent markers which prevented the imaging of the distribution of fluorescent proteins and the three-dimensional reconstruction from optical slices of whole plant organs. From 2011, a number of protocols have been developed for whole brain and whole organism imaging for animal studies. Now, these protocols have been adapted for in-depth imaging of whole plant organs. Here, I present an overview of clearing techniques of plant organs and highlight the latest developments of plant tissue clearing in combination with high resolution fluorescence microscopy.

Molecular basis of lipo-chitooligosaccharide recognition by the lysin motif receptor-like kinase LYR3 in legumes.

LYR3 [LysM (lysin motif) receptor-like kinase 3] of Medicago truncatula is a high-affinity binding protein for symbiotic LCO (lipo-chitooligosaccharide) signals, produced by rhizobia bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. The present study shows that LYR3 from several other legumes, but not from two Lupinus species which are incapable of forming the mycorrhizal symbiosis, bind LCOs with high affinity and discriminate them from COs (chitooligosaccharides). The biodiversity of these proteins and the lack of binding to the Lupinus proteins were used to identify features required for high-affinity LCO binding. Swapping experiments between each of the three LysMs of the extracellular domain of the M. truncatula and Lupinus angustifolius LYR3 proteins revealed the crucial role of the third LysM in LCO binding. Site-directed mutagenesis identified a tyrosine residue, highly conserved in all LYR3 LCO-binding proteins, which is essential for high-affinity binding. Molecular modelling suggests that it may be part of a hydrophobic tunnel able to accommodate the LCO acyl chain. The lack of conservation of these features in the binding site of plant LysM proteins binding COs provides a mechanistic explanation of how LCO recognition might differ from CO perception by structurally related LysM receptors.

Comparative analysis of the tubulin cytoskeleton organization in nodules of Medicago truncatula and Pisum sativum: bacterial release and bacteroid positioning correlate with characteristic microtubule rearrangements.

In this study we analyzed and compared the organization of the tubulin cytoskeleton in nodules of Medicago truncatula and Pisum sativum. We combined antibody labeling and green fluorescent protein tagging with laser confocal microscopy to observe microtubules (MTs) in nodules of both wild-type (WT) plants and symbiotic plant mutants blocked at different steps of nodule development. The 3D MT organization of each histological nodule zone in both M. truncatula and P. sativum is correlated to specific developmental processes. Endoplasmic MTs appear to support infection thread growth, infection droplet formation and bacterial release into the host cytoplasm in nodules of both species. No differences in the organization of the MT cytoskeleton between WT and bacterial release mutants were apparent, suggesting both that the phenotype is not linked to a defect in MT organization and that the growth of hypertrophied infection threads is supported by MTs. Strikingly, bacterial release coincides with a change in the organization of cortical MTs from parallel arrays into an irregular, crisscross arrangement. After release, the organization of endoplasmic MTs is linked to the distribution of symbiosomes. The 3D MT organization of each nodule histological zone in M. truncatula and P. sativum was analyzed and linked to specific developmental processes.

A switch in Ca2+ spiking signature is concomitant with endosymbiotic microbe entry into cortical root cells of Medicago truncatula.

Ca(2+) spiking is a central component of a common signaling pathway that is activated in the host epidermis during initial recognition of endosymbiotic microbes. However, it is not known to what extent Ca(2+) signaling also plays a role during subsequent root colonization involving apoplastic transcellular infection. Live-tissue imaging using calcium cameleon reporters expressed in Medicago truncatula roots has revealed that distinct Ca(2+) oscillatory profiles correlate with specific stages of transcellular cortical infection by both rhizobia and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Outer cortical cells exhibit low-frequency Ca(2+) spiking during the extensive intracellular remodeling that precedes infection. This appears to be a prerequisite for the formation of either pre-infection threads or the pre-penetration apparatus, both of which are fully reversible processes. A transition from low- to high-frequency spiking is concomitant with the initial stages of apoplastic cell entry by both microbes. This high-frequency spiking is of limited duration in the case of rhizobial infection and is completely switched off by the time transcellular infection by both microsymbionts is completed. The Ca(2+) spiking profiles associated with both rhizobial and arbuscular mycorrhizal cell entry are remarkably similar in terms of periodicity, suggesting that microbe specificity is unlikely to be encoded by the Ca(2+) signature during this particular stage of host infection in the outer cortex. Together, these findings lead to the proposal that tightly regulated Ca(2+) -mediated signal transduction is a key player in reprogramming root cell development at the critical stage of commitment to endosymbiotic infection.

Mechanism of infection thread elongation in root hairs of Medicago truncatula and dynamic interplay with associated rhizobial colonization.

In temperate legumes, endosymbiotic nitrogen-fixing rhizobia gain access to inner root tissues via a specialized transcellular apoplastic compartment known as the infection thread (IT). To study IT development in living root hairs, a protocol has been established for Medicago truncatula that allows confocal microscopic observations of the intracellular dynamics associated with IT growth. Fluorescent labeling of both the IT envelope (AtPIP2;1-green fluorescent protein) and the host endoplasmic reticulum (green fluorescent protein-HDEL) has revealed that IT growth is a fundamentally discontinuous process and that the variable rate of root hair invagination is reflected in changes in the host cell cytoarchitecture. The concomitant use of fluorescently labeled Sinorhizobium meliloti has further revealed that a bacteria-free zone is frequently present at the growing tip of the IT, thus indicating that bacterial contact is not essential for thread progression. Finally, these in vivo studies have shown that gaps within the bacterial file are a common feature during the early stages of IT development, and that segments of the file are able to slide collectively down the thread. Taken together, these observations lead us to propose that (1) IT growth involves a host-driven cellular mechanism analogous to that described for intracellular infection by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi; (2) the non-regular growth of the thread is a consequence of the rate-limiting colonization by the infecting rhizobia; and (3) bacterial colonization involves a combination of bacterial cell division and sliding movement within the extracellular matrix of the apoplastic compartment.

Nodulation studies in the model legume Medicago truncatula: advantages of using the constitutive EF1alpha promoter and limitations in detecting fluorescent reporter proteins in nodule tissues.

The Cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter currently is being used in RNAi-based approaches for attenuating host gene expression during legume root nodule development and also for the expression of fluorescent reporters in nodule tissues. In this study, we have evaluated the expression of this promoter in the indeterminate nodules of the model plant Medicago truncatula. Our results clearly show that the 35S promoter is inactive in both the nodule meristem and in bacteroid-containing cells of the nodules. On the other hand, the Arabidopsis thaliana EF1alpha promoter was found to be strongly expressed both in the nodule meristem and in all nodule-invaded cells. Therefore, we conclude that the constitutive EF1alpha promoter is far superior for mRNAi or overexpression studies in nodule tissues compared with the commonly used 35S promoter. In addition, our experiments have revealed that the intensity of fluorescent markers such as green fluorescent protein is severely attenuated within invaded cells in the nitrogen-fixation zone of the nodule, most likely by fluorescence quenching. This phenomenon may hinder the use of these tools for live-cell imaging in nodule tissue.

Microtubule dynamics in root hairs of Medicago truncatula.

The microtubular cytoskeleton plays an important role in the development of tip-growing plant cells, but knowledge about its dynamics is incomplete. In this study, root hairs of the legume Medicago truncatula have been chosen for a detailed analysis of microtubular cytoskeleton dynamics using GFP-MBD and EB1-YFP as markers and 4D imaging. The microtubular cytoskeleton appears mainly to be composed of bundles which form tracks along which new microtubules polymerise. Polymerisation rates of microtubules are highest in the tip of growing root hairs. Treatment of root hairs with Nod factor and latrunculin B result in a twofold decrease in polymerisation rate. Nonetheless, no direct, physical interaction between the actin filament cytoskeleton and microtubules could be observed. A new picture of how the plant cytoskeleton is organised in apically growing root hairs emerges from these observations, revealing similarities with the organisation in other, non-plant, tip-growing cells.

Nod factors alter the microtubule cytoskeleton in Medicago truncatula root hairs to allow root hair reorientation.

The microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton is an important part of the tip-growth machinery in legume root hairs. Here we report the effect of Nod factor (NF) on MTs in root hairs of Medicago truncatula. In tip-growing hairs, the ones that typically curl around rhizobia, NF caused a subtle shortening of the endoplasmic MT array, which recovered within 10 min, whereas cortical MTs were not visibly affected. In growth-arresting root hairs, endoplasmic MTs disappeared shortly after NF application, but reformed within 20 min, whereas cortical MTs remained present in a high density. After NF treatment, growth-arresting hairs were swelling at their tips, after which a new outgrowth formed that deviated with a certain angle from the former growth axis. MT depolymerization with oryzalin caused a growth deviation similar to the NF; whereas, combined with NF, oryzalin increased and the MT-stabilizing drug taxol suppressed NF-induced growth deviation. The NF-induced disappearance of the endoplasmic MTs correlated with a loss of polar cytoarchitecture and straight growth directionality, whereas the reappearance of endoplasmic MTs correlated with the new set up of polar cytoarchitecture. Drug studies showed that MTs are involved in determining root hair elongation in a new direction after NF treatment.

Methylotrophic metabolism is advantageous for Methylobacterium extorquens during colonization of Medicago truncatula under competitive conditions.

Facultative methylotrophic bacteria of the genus Methylobacterium are commonly found in association with plants. Inoculation experiments were performed to study the importance of methylotrophic metabolism for colonization of the model legume Medicago truncatula. Competition experiments with Methylobacterium extorquens wild-type strain AM1 and methylotrophy mutants revealed that the ability to use methanol as a carbon and energy source provides a selective advantage during colonization of M. truncatula. Differences in the fitness of mutants defective in different stages of methylotrophic metabolism were found; whereas approximately 25% of the mutant incapable of oxidizing methanol to formaldehyde (deficient in methanol dehydrogenase) was recovered, 10% or less of the mutants incapable of oxidizing formaldehyde to CO2 (defective in biosynthesis of the cofactor tetrahydromethanopterin) was recovered. Interestingly, impaired fitness of the mutant strains compared with the wild type was found on leaves and roots. Single-inoculation experiments showed, however, that mutants with defects in methylotrophy were capable of plant colonization at the wild-type level, indicating that methanol is not the only carbon source that is accessible to Methylobacterium while it is associated with plants. Fluorescence microscopy with a green fluorescent protein-labeled derivative of M. extorquens AM1 revealed that the majority of the bacterial cells on leaves were on the surface and that the cells were most abundant on the lower, abaxial side. However, bacterial cells were also found in the intercellular spaces inside the leaves, especially in the epidermal cell layer and immediately underneath this layer.

GFP-FABD2 fusion construct allows in vivo visualization of the dynamic actin cytoskeleton in all cells of Arabidopsis seedlings.

In vivo visualization of filamentous actin in all cells of Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings is essential for understanding the numerous roles of the actin cytoskeleton in diverse processes of cell differentiation. A previously introduced reporter construct based on the actin-binding domain of mouse talin proved to be useful for unravelling some of these aspects in cell layers close to the organ surface. However, cells more deeply embedded, especially stelar cells active in polar transport of auxin, show either diffuse or no fluorescence at all due to the lack of expression of the fusion protein. The same problem is encountered in the root meristem. Recently introduced actin reporters based on fusions between A. thaliana fimbrin 1 and GFP gave brilliant results in organs from the root differentiation zone upwards to the leaves, however failed to depict the filamentous actin cytoskeleton in the transition zone of the root, in the apical meristem and the root cap. To overcome these problems, we have prepared new transgenic lines for the visualization of F-actin in vivo. We report here that a construct consisting of GFP fused to the C-terminal half of A. thaliana fimbrin 1 reveals dynamic arrays of F-actin in all cells of stably transformed A. thaliana seedlings.

Actin-based motility of endosomes is linked to the polar tip growth of root hairs.

Plant tip growth has been recognized as an actin-based cellular process requiring targeted exocytosis and compensatory endocytosis to occur at the growth cone. However, the identity of subcellular compartments involved in polarized membrane trafficking pathways remains enigmatic in plants. Here we characterize endosomal compartments in tip-growing root hair cells. We demonstrate their presence at the growing tip and differential distribution upon cessation of tip growth. We also show that both the presence of endosomes as well as their rapid movements within the tip region depends on an intact actin cytoskeleton and involves actin polymerization. In conclusion, actin-propelled endosomal motility is tightly linked to the polar tip growth of root hairs.

Characterization of four lectin-like receptor kinases expressed in roots of Medicago truncatula. Structure, location, regulation of expression, and potential role in the symbiosis with Sinorhizobium meliloti.

To study the role of LecRK (lectin-like receptor kinase) genes in the legumerhizobia symbiosis, we have characterized the four Medicago truncatula Gaernt. LecRK genes that are most highly expressed in roots. Three of these genes, MtLecRK7;1, MtLecRK7;2, and MtLecRK7;3, encode proteins most closely related to the Class A LecRKs of Arabidopsis, whereas the protein encoded by the fourth gene, MtLecRK1;1, is most similar to a Class B Arabidopsis LecRK. All four genes show a strongly enhanced root expression, and detailed studies on MtLecRK1;1 and MtLecRK7;2 revealed that the levels of their mRNAs are increased by nitrogen starvation and transiently repressed after either rhizobial inoculation or addition of lipochitooligosaccharidic Nod factors. Studies of the MtLecRK1;1 and MtLecRK7;2 proteins, using green fluorescent protein fusions in transgenic M. truncatula roots, revealed that they are located in the plasma membrane and that their central transmembrane-spanning helix is required for correct sorting. Moreover, their lectin-like domains appear to be highly glycosylated. Of the four proteins, only MtLecRK1;1 shows a high conservation of key residues implicated in monosaccharide binding, and molecular modeling revealed that this protein may be capable of interacting with Nod factors. However, no increase in Nod factor binding was found in roots overexpressing a fusion in which the kinase domain of this protein had been replaced with green fluorescent protein. Roots expressing this fusion protein however showed an increase in nodule number, suggesting that expression of MtLecRK1;1 influences nodulation. The potential role of LecRKs in the legume-rhizobia symbiosis is discussed.

The Nod factor-elicited annexin MtAnn1 is preferentially localised at the nuclear periphery in symbiotically activated root tissues of Medicago truncatula.

The Medicago truncatula MtAnn1 gene, encoding a putative annexin, is transcriptionally activated in root tissues in response to rhizobial Nod factors. To gain further insight into MtAnn1 function during the early stages of nodulation, we have examined in detail both spatio-temporal gene expression patterns and MtAnn1 activity and localisation in root tissues. Analysis of transgenic Medicago plants expressing a pMtAnn1-GUS fusion has revealed a novel pattern of transcription in both outer and inner cell layers of the root following either Nod factor-treatment or rhizobial inoculation. The highest gene expression levels were observed in the endodermis and outer cortex. These transgenic plants also revealed that MtAnn1 expression is associated with lateral root development and cell differentiation in the root apex independent of nodulation. By purifying recombinant MtAnn1 we were able to demonstrate that this plant annexin indeed possesses the calcium-dependent binding to acidic phospholipids typical of the annexin family. Antisera against recombinant MtAnn1 were then used to show that tissue-specific localisation of the MtAnn1 protein in Medicago roots matches the pMtAnn1-GUS expression pattern. Finally, both immunolabelling and in vivo studies using MtAnn1-GFP reporter fusions have revealed that MtAnn1 is cytosolic and in particular localises to the nuclear periphery in cortical cells activated during the early stages of nodulation. In the light of our findings, we discuss the possible role of this annexin in root tissues responding to symbiotic rhizobial signals.

Endoplasmic microtubules configure the subapical cytoplasm and are required for fast growth of Medicago truncatula root hairs.

To investigate the configuration and function of microtubules (MTs) in tip-growing Medicago truncatula root hairs, we used immunocytochemistry or in vivo decoration by a GFP linked to a MT-binding domain. The two approaches gave similar results and allowed the study of MTs during hair development. Cortical MTs (CMTs) are present in all developmental stages. During the transition from bulge to a tip-growing root hair, endoplasmic MTs (EMTs) appear at the tip of the young hair and remain there until growth arrest. EMTs are a specific feature of tip-growing hairs, forming a three-dimensional array throughout the subapical cytoplasmic dense region. During growth arrest, EMTs, together with the subapical cytoplasmic dense region, progressively disappear, whereas CMTs extend further toward the tip. In full-grown root hairs, CMTs, the only remaining population of MTs, converge at the tip and their density decreases over time. Upon treatment of growing hairs with 1 microM oryzalin, EMTs disappear, but CMTs remain present. The subapical cytoplasmic dense region becomes very short, the distance nucleus tip increases, growth slows down, and the nucleus still follows the advancing tip, though at a much larger distance. Taxol has no effect on the cytoarchitecture of growing hairs; the subapical cytoplasmic dense region remains intact, the nucleus keeps its distance from the tip, but growth rate drops to the same extent as in hairs treated with 1 microM oryzalin. The role of EMTs in growing root hairs is discussed.