Single input state polarization sensitive swept source optical coherence tomography based on an all single mode fiber interferometer.

We present a newly developed single mode fiber based swept source polarization sensitive optical coherence tomography system using a single input state at 1040 nm. Two non-polarizing fiber based beam splitters are combined to form a Mach-Zehnder interferometer, while two polarizing beam splitters are used to obtain a polarization sensitive detection. Both types of beam splitters solely feature conventional single mode fibers. Polarization control paddles are used to set and maintain the polarization states in the fibers of the interferometer and detection unit. By use of a special paddle alignment scheme we are able to eliminate any bulk optic wave plates and polarization maintaining fibers in the interferometer and detection paths while preserving the advantages of a single input state system that illuminates the sample with circularly polarized light. To demonstrate the capabilities of our system, we performed retinal measurements on healthy human volunteers.

In vitro and in vivo three-dimensional velocity vector measurement by three-beam spectral-domain Doppler optical coherence tomography.

We developed a three-beam Doppler optical coherence tomography (OCT) system that enables measurement of the velocity vector of moving particles in three-dimensions (3-D). The spatial orientation as well as the magnitude of motion can be determined without prior knowledge of the geometry of motion. The system combines three spectral-domain OCT interferometers whose sample beams are focused at the sample by a common focusing lens at three different angles. This provides three spatially independent velocity components simultaneously from which the velocity vector can be reconstructed. We demonstrate the system in a simple test object (rotating disc), a flow phantom, and for blood flow measurements in the retina of a healthy human subject. Measurements of blood flow at a venous bifurcation achieve a good agreement between in- and outflow and demonstrate the reliability of the method.

Retinal polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography at 1060 nm with 350 kHz A-scan rate using an Fourier domain mode locked laser.

We present a novel, high-speed, polarization-sensitive, optical coherence tomography set-up for retinal imaging operating at a central wavelength of 1060 nm which was tested for in vivo imaging in healthy human volunteers. We use the system in combination with a Fourier domain mode locked laser with active spectral shaping which enables the use of forward and backward sweep in order to double the imaging speed without a buffering stage. With this approach and with a custom designed data acquisition system, we show polarization-sensitive imaging with an A-scan rate of 350 kHz. The acquired three-dimensional data sets of healthy human volunteers show different polarization characteristics in the eye, such as depolarization in the retinal pigment epithelium and birefringence in retinal nerve fiber layer and sclera. The increased speed allows imaging of large volumes with reduced motion artifacts. Moreover, averaging several two-dimensional frames allows the generation of high-definition B-scans without the use of an eye-tracking system. The increased penetration depth of the system, which is caused by the longer probing beam wavelength, is beneficial for imaging choroidal and scleral structures and allows automated segmentation of these layers based on their polarization characteristics.

Measuring retinal nerve fiber layer birefringence, retardation, and thickness using wide-field, high-speed polarization sensitive spectral domain OCT.

PURPOSE: We presented a novel polarization sensitive optical coherence tomography (PS-OCT) system for measuring retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) birefringence, retardation, and thickness, and report on the repeatability of acquiring these quantities. METHODS: A new PS-OCT system, measuring at 840 nm, was developed that supports scan angles of up to 40° × 40° with an A-scan rate of 70 kHz. To test the performance and reproducibility, we measured 10 eyes of 5 healthy human volunteers five times each. All volunteers were imaged further with scanning laser polarimetry (SLP). The obtained RNFL birefringence, retardation, and thickness maps were averaged, and standard deviation maps were calculated. For quantitative comparison between the new PS-OCT and SLP, a circumpapillary evaluation within 2 annular segments (superior and inferior to the optic disc) was performed. RESULTS: High quality RNFL birefringence, retardation, and thickness maps were obtained. Within the superior and inferior segments, the mean retardation for individual eyes ranged from 20° to 28.9° and 17.2° to 28.2°, respectively. The quadrant precision over the 5 consecutive measurements for each subject, calculated for the average retardation obtained within the superior and inferior quadrants ranged from 0.16° to 0.69°. The mean birefringence ranged from 0.106°/µm to 0.141°/µm superior and 0.101°/µm to 0.135°/µm inferior, with a quadrant precision of 0.001°/µm to 0.007°/µm. The mean RNFL thickness varied from 114 to 150 µm superior, and 111 to 140.9 µm inferior (quadrant precision ranged from 3.6 to 11.9 µm). CONCLUSIONS: The new PS-OCT system showed high image quality and reproducibility, and, therefore, might be a valuable tool for glaucoma diagnosis.

Large-field high-speed polarization sensitive spectral domain OCT and its applications in ophthalmology.

We present a novel spectral domain polarization sensitive OCT system (PS-OCT) that operates at an A-scan rate of 70 kHz and supports scan angles of up to 40° × 40°. The high-speed imaging allows the acquisition of up to 1024 × 250 A-scans per 3D scan, which, together with the large field of view, considerably increases the informative value of the images. To demonstrate the excellent performance of the new PS-OCT system, we imaged several healthy volunteers and patients with various diseases such as glaucoma, AMD, Stargardt's disease, and albinism. The results are compared with clinically established methods such as scanning laser polarimetry and autofluorescence.

High-speed polarization sensitive optical coherence tomography scan engine based on Fourier domain mode locked laser.

We report on a new swept source polarization sensitive optical coherence tomography scan engine that is based on polarization maintaining (PM) fiber technology. The light source is a Fourier domain mode locked laser with a PM cavity that operates in the 1300 nm wavelength regime. It is equipped with a PM buffer stage that doubles the fundamental sweep frequency of 54.5 kHz. The fiberization allows coupling of the scan engine to different delivery probes. In a first demonstration, we use the system for imaging human skin at an A-scan rate of 109 kHz. The system illuminates the sample with circularly polarized light and measures reflectivity, retardation, optic axis orientation, and Stokes vectors simultaneously. Furthermore, depolarization can be quantified by calculating the degree of polarization uniformity (DOPU). The high scanning speed of the system enables dense sampling in both, the x- and y-direction, which provides the opportunity to use 3D evaluation windows for DOPU calculation. This improves the spatial resolution of DOPU images considerably.

High-speed retinal imaging with polarization-sensitive OCT at 1040 nm.

PURPOSE: To demonstrate the ability of a new high-speed polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography (PS-OCT) system for retinal imaging at 1040 nm. METHODS: A new polarization-sensitive swept source OCT system in the 1 µm wavelength range is used to image the retina of healthy volunteers. The instrument is operated at an A-scan rate of 100 kHz which is about three times faster than previously reported PS-OCT instruments in this wavelength region. The increased imaging speed can be used to record densely sampled volumes of the retina. Moreover, it enables averaging of several B-scans recorded at the same location to obtain high-definition B-scans without the use of an eye tracker. RESULTS: Polarization-sensitive images of healthy volunteers clearly show the retinal pigment epithelium as a depolarizing layer. In addition, the good tissue penetration of the system allows the visualization of the sclera, which is highly birefringent and therefore shows increased image contrast with PS-OCT. CONCLUSIONS: PS-OCT in the 1 µm wavelength region shows similar polarization effects as in the 840 nm wavelength range. The high speed enables averaging of several B-scans to obtain high-definition polarization-sensitive images. The new system provides excellent penetration depth into the choroid and sclera.

Automated measurement of choroidal thickness in the human eye by polarization sensitive optical coherence tomography.

We present a new method to automatically segment the thickness of the choroid in the human eye by polarization sensitive optical coherence tomography (PS-OCT). A swept source PS-OCT instrument operating at a center wavelength of 1040 nm is used. The segmentation method is based entirely on intrinsic, tissue specific polarization contrast mechanisms. In a first step, the anterior boundary of the choroid, the retinal pigment epithelium, is segmented based on depolarization. In a second step, the choroid-sclera interface is found by using the birefringence of the sclera. The method is demonstrated in five healthy eyes. The mean repeatability (standard deviation) of thickness measurement was found to be 18.3 µm.

Visualization of microvasculature by dual-beam phase-resolved Doppler optical coherence tomography.

We present a dual-beam Doppler optical coherence tomography system for visualizing the microvasculature within the retina. The sample arm beams from two identical spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) systems are combined such that there is a small horizontal offset between them at the retina. Thereby we record two tomograms which are slightly separated in time. Phase-resolved Doppler analysis is performed between these two data sets. This system allows blood capillary imaging with high flow sensitivity and variable velocity range. To demonstrate the performance of our system we present images of the microvascular network around the fovea and around the optic nerve head of the human eye.

Sample motion-insensitive, full-range, complex, spectral-domain optical-coherence tomography.

We present a full-range, complex, spectral-domain optical-coherence-tomography (SD-OCT) system that is based on a double-beam scanning approach. The sample beams of two identical SD-OCT setups are combined collinearly by a bulk optic beam splitter before illuminating the object. The required phase shift for the complex signal reconstruction comes from the phase difference between both interferometers. Because of the double-beam scanning approach, our system is completely insensitive to sample motion. To demonstrate the performance of our setup, we present images of the human optic nerve head in vivo and of a human tooth.