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Glycocalyx disruption and hyperinflammatory responses are implicated in the pathogenesis of dengue-associated vascular leak, however little is known about their association with clinical outcomes of patients with dengue shock syndrome (DSS). We investigated the association of vascular and inflammatory biomarkers with clinical outcomes and their correlations with clinical markers of vascular leakage. We performed a prospective cohort study in Viet Nam. Children ≥5 years of age with a clinical diagnosis of DSS were enrolled into this study. Blood samples were taken daily during ICU stay and 7-10 days after hospital discharge for measurements of plasma levels of Syndecan-1, Hyaluronan, Suppression of tumourigenicity 2 (ST-2), Ferritin, N-terminal pro Brain Natriuretic Peptide (NT-proBNP), and Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP). The primary outcome was recurrent shock. Ninety DSS patients were enrolled. Recurrent shock occurred in 16 patients. All biomarkers, except NT-proBNP, were elevated at presentation with shock. There were no differences between compensated and decompensated DSS patients. Glycocalyx markers were positively correlated with inflammatory biomarkers, haematocrit, percentage haemoconcentration, and negatively correlated with stroke volume index. While Syndecan-1, Hyaluronan, Ferritin, and ST-2 improved with time, ANP continued to be raised at follow-up. Enrolment Syndecan-1 levels were observed to be associated with developing recurrent shock although the association did not reach the statistical significance at the P < 0.01 (OR = 1.82, 95% CI 1.07-3.35, P = 0.038). Cardiovascular and inflammatory biomarkers are elevated in DSS, correlate with clinical vascular leakage parameters and follow different kinetics over time. Syndecan-1 may have potential utility in risk stratifying DSS patients in ICU.
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The chlorine evolution reaction (CER) is a crucial anode reaction in the chlor-alkali industrial process. Precious metal-based dimensionally stable anodes (DSAs) are commonly used as catalysts for CER but are constrained by their high cost and low selectivity. Herein, a Pt dual singe-atom catalyst (DSAC) dispersed on fluorine-doped carbon nanotubes (F-CNTs) is designed for an efficient and robust CER process. The prepared Pt DSAC demonstrates excellent CER activity with a low overpotential of 21 mV to achieve a current density of 10 mA cm-2 and a remarkable mass activity of 3802.6 A gpt-1 at an overpotential around 30 mV, outperforming those of commercial DSA and Pt single-atom catalysts. The excellent CER performance of Pt DSAC is attributed to the high atomic utilization and improved intrinsic activity. Notably, introducing fluorine atoms on CNTs increases the oxidation and chlorination resistance of Pt DSAC, and reduces the demetalization ratio of Pt atoms, resulting in excellent long-term CER stability. Theoretical calculations reveal that several Pt DSAC configurations with optimized first-shell ligands and interatomic distance display lower energy barriers for Cl intermediates generation and weaker ionic Pt-Cl bond interaction, which are favorable for the CER process.
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Due to the heterogeneity of recycled paper materials and the production conditions, pollutants in papermaking wastewater fluctuate sharply over time. Quality control of the papermaking wastewater treatment process (PWTP) is challenging and costly. As regulations are also growing about the environmental effects of the PWTP on greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, energy consumption, etc., the PWTP formulates a complex multiobjective optimization problem. This research established a multiagent deep reinforcement learning framework to simultaneously optimize process cost, energy consumption, and GHG emission in the PWTP, subjected to the effluent quality, to realize economic, energy, and environmental (3E) goals. The biological treatment process of wastewater in paper mills was simulated using benchmark simulation model no. 1 (BSM1). The data generated based on the BSM manual was utilized for model training, and real data acquired from a local papermaking factory was used to estimate the model performance. The results show that the proposed method outperforms conventional techniques in identifying the best control strategies for multiple targets.
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OBJECTIVE: Persons with traumatic brain injury (TBI) frequently experience emotional distress (ED) manifested in anxiety and depression. However, they may not access mental health services due to external (eg, access, transportation, and cost) or internal (eg, stigma and discomfort with traditional counseling) barriers. Based on substantial literature indicating that self-monitoring can ameliorate several health conditions, we conducted a randomized, parallel group, wait-list control (WLC) trial of a self-monitoring intervention to decrease ED after TBI. SETTING: Community in the southwestern United States. PARTICIPANTS: Persons with medically documented complicated mild, moderate, and severe TBI. DESIGN: About 127 participants were randomized in blocks of 6 to an active treatment (AT) group, wherein they completed multiple assessments of ED each week over a 6-week period via a smartphone app, or a WLC group in a parallel group, controlled trial. Participants received weekly support calls to promote self-monitoring of ED using ecological momentary assessment. MAIN MEASURES: ED (Patient Health Questionnaire-9 and Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7), Satisfaction with Life Scale, and Participation Assessment with Recombined Tools-Objective. RESULTS: Analysis of the primary study outcome at 6 weeks after initiation of treatment for the AT group did not demonstrate that self-monitoring was effective in decreasing ED as compared to the WLC group. Brief support calls made weekly to promote compliance with self-monitoring were effective in achieving the target number of self-assessments. About 80% of support calls lasted less than 5 minutes. Greater ED was associated with lower life satisfaction and lower participation indicating the importance of addressing ED in persons with TBI. CONCLUSION: Additional work is needed to develop nontraditional interventions to circumvent barriers that prevent persons with TBI from accessing care for ED. Brief support calls may be an effective, low-cost intervention to improve compliance with self-monitoring or self-management interventions.
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Itaconic acid is an excellent polymeric precursor with a wide range of industrial applications. The efficient production of itaconate from various renewable substrates was demonstrated by engineered Escherichia coli. However, limitation in the itaconic acid precursor supply was revealed by finding out the key intermediate of the tricarboxylic acid in the itaconic acid pathway. Efforts of enhancing the cis-aconitate flux and preserving the isocitrate pool to increase itaconic acid productivity are required. In this study, we introduce a synthetic protein scaffold system between CadA and AcnA to physically combine the two enzymes. Through the introduction of a synthetic protein scaffold, 2.1 g L-1 of itaconic acid was produced at pH 7 and 37 °C. By fermentation, 20.1 g L-1 for 48 h of itaconic acid was produced with a yield of 0.34 g g-1 glycerol. These results suggest that carbon flux was successfully increased itaconic acid productivity.
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Escherichia coli , Engenharia Metabólica , Succinatos , Succinatos/metabolismo , Escherichia coli/genética , Escherichia coli/metabolismo , Engenharia Metabólica/métodos , Proteínas de Escherichia coli/genética , Proteínas de Escherichia coli/metabolismo , FermentaçãoRESUMO
Currently used visible light catalysts either operate with high-power light sources or require prolonged periods of time for catalytic reactions. This presents a limitation regarding facile application in indoor environments and spaces frequented by the public. Furthermore, this gives rise to elevated power consumption. Here, we enhance photocatalytic performance with blue TiO2 and WO3 complexes covalently coupled through an organic molecule, 3-mercaptopropionic acid, under indoor light. Antibacterial experiments against 108 CFU/mL Escherichia coli (E. coli) suspensions were conducted under indoor light exposure conditions. They showed a sterilization effect of almost 90% within 70 min and nearly 100% after 110 min. The complex generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as â¢OH and O2â¢-, under natural air conditions. We also showed that h+ and â¢OH are important for sterilizing E. coli using common scavengers. This research highlights the potential of these complexes to generate ROS, effectively playing a crucial role in antibacterial effects under indoor light.
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Antibacterianos , Escherichia coli , Luz , Espécies Reativas de Oxigênio , Titânio , Tungstênio , Escherichia coli/efeitos dos fármacos , Escherichia coli/efeitos da radiação , Titânio/química , Titânio/farmacologia , Antibacterianos/farmacologia , Antibacterianos/química , Tungstênio/química , Tungstênio/farmacologia , Catálise , Espécies Reativas de Oxigênio/metabolismo , Óxidos/farmacologia , Óxidos/química , Testes de Sensibilidade MicrobianaRESUMO
Food protein-induced allergic proctocolitis (FPIAP) is a non-IgE-mediated allergic condition that presents with hematochezia in otherwise healthy infants. It is most commonly induced by cow's milk protein via breast milk or formula. The prognosis for FPIAP is generally considered favorable with most infants achieving symptomatic resolution after diet modification. Most infants go on to tolerate the offending foods by 1-3 years of age. Over 8 years at our institution, five patients were identified and noted to have FPIAP to cow's milk during infancy with subsequent development of IgE-mediated allergic reaction to cow's milk and other foods. All five cases developed other atopic disorders (atopic dermatitis in four cases). IgE-mediated cow's milk allergy has persisted beyond the preschool years in at least two patients (currently 8 and 16 years old). For three of the patients, the IgE-mediated reaction to cow's milk was severe with development of anaphylaxis or angioedema. In addition, three patients experienced anaphylaxis or angioedema to allergens other than milk. While FPIAP is a non-IgE-mediated process traditionally thought not to progress past the first year of life, some infants with FPIAP develop severe, persistent IgE-mediated cow's milk allergy. To our knowledge, this is the first detailed clinical description of such patients.
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We report kinetic energies (KE) of multiply charged atomic ions (MCAI) from interactions of moderately intense nanosecond lasers at 532 nm with argon containing clusters, including neat and doped clusters with a trace amount of trichlorobenzene. We develop a mathematical method to retrieve speed and thereby kinetic energy information from analyzing the time-of-flight profiles of the MCAI. This method should be generally applicable in detections of energetic charged particles with high velocities, a realm where velocity map imaging is inadequate. From this analysis, we discover that the KE of MCAI from doped clusters demonstrates a quadratic dependence on the charge of the atomic ions, while for neat clusters, the dependence is cubic. This result confirms the nature of the cluster disintegration process to be dominated by Coulomb explosion. This result bears more similarity to reports from extreme vacuum ultraviolet (EUV) fields with similar intensities, than to reports from near infrared (NIR) intense laser fields. However, the charge state distribution from our experiment is the opposite: we observe more higher charge state ions than reported in EUV fields, and our charge state distribution is actually similar to those reported in NIR fields. We also report a significant effect of the external electric field on the charge state distribution of the atomic ions: the presence of an electric field can significantly increase the charge from the atomic ions, as shown by a three-fold reduction in the average kinetic energy per charge. Although molecular dynamics simulations have been implemented for experiments in the EUV and NIR, our results allude to the need of a concerted effort in this regime of moderately intense nanosecond laser fields. The significant decrease in charge state distribution and the significant increase in KE from doped clusters, compared with neat clusters, is a telltale sign that the true interaction time between the laser field and the cluster may be substantially shorter than the duration of the laser, a welcome relief for molecular dynamics simulations.
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BACKGROUND: Viral infections can cause acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), systemic inflammation, and secondary cardiovascular complications. Lung macrophage subsets change during ARDS, but the role of heart macrophages in cardiac injury during viral ARDS remains unknown. Here we investigate how immune signals typical for viral ARDS affect cardiac macrophage subsets, cardiovascular health, and systemic inflammation. METHODS: We assessed cardiac macrophage subsets using immunofluorescence histology of autopsy specimens from 21 patients with COVID-19 with SARS-CoV-2-associated ARDS and 33 patients who died from other causes. In mice, we compared cardiac immune cell dynamics after SARS-CoV-2 infection with ARDS induced by intratracheal instillation of Toll-like receptor ligands and an ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) inhibitor. RESULTS: In humans, SARS-CoV-2 increased total cardiac macrophage counts and led to a higher proportion of CCR2+ (C-C chemokine receptor type 2 positive) macrophages. In mice, SARS-CoV-2 and virus-free lung injury triggered profound remodeling of cardiac resident macrophages, recapitulating the clinical expansion of CCR2+ macrophages. Treating mice exposed to virus-like ARDS with a tumor necrosis factor α-neutralizing antibody reduced cardiac monocytes and inflammatory MHCIIlo CCR2+ macrophages while also preserving cardiac function. Virus-like ARDS elevated mortality in mice with pre-existing heart failure. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that viral ARDS promotes cardiac inflammation by expanding the CCR2+ macrophage subset, and the associated cardiac phenotypes in mice can be elicited by activating the host immune system even without viral presence in the heart.
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COVID-19 , Cardiomiopatias , Síndrome do Desconforto Respiratório , SARS-CoV-2 , COVID-19/imunologia , COVID-19/complicações , COVID-19/patologia , Animais , Humanos , Síndrome do Desconforto Respiratório/imunologia , Síndrome do Desconforto Respiratório/etiologia , Síndrome do Desconforto Respiratório/patologia , Síndrome do Desconforto Respiratório/virologia , Camundongos , Masculino , Feminino , Cardiomiopatias/imunologia , Cardiomiopatias/etiologia , Cardiomiopatias/patologia , Cardiomiopatias/virologia , Macrófagos/imunologia , Macrófagos/patologia , Macrófagos/metabolismo , Inflamação/patologia , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Miocárdio/patologia , Miocárdio/imunologia , Camundongos Endogâmicos C57BL , IdosoRESUMO
Here we present a sample of 12 massive quiescent galaxy candidates at [Formula: see text] observed with the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) Near Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec). These galaxies were pre-selected from the Hubble Space Telescope imaging and 10 of our sources were unable to be spectroscopically confirmed by ground based spectroscopy. By combining spectroscopic data from NIRSpec with multi-wavelength imaging data from the JWST Near Infrared Camera (NIRCam), we analyse their stellar populations and their formation histories. We find that all of our galaxies classify as quiescent based on the reconstruction of their star formation histories but show a variety of quenching timescales and ages. All our galaxies are massive ([Formula: see text] M[Formula: see text]), with masses comparable to massive galaxies in the local Universe. We find that the oldest galaxy in our sample formed [Formula: see text] M[Formula: see text] of mass within the first few hundred million years of the Universe and has been quenched for more than a billion years by the time of observation at [Formula: see text] ([Formula: see text] billion years after the Big Bang). Our results point to very early formation of massive galaxies requiring a high conversion rate of baryons to stars in the early Universe.
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The formation of galaxies by gradual hierarchical co-assembly of baryons and cold dark matter halos is a fundamental paradigm underpinning modern astrophysics1,2 and predicts a strong decline in the number of massive galaxies at early cosmic times3-5. Extremely massive quiescent galaxies (stellar masses of more than 1011 Mâ) have now been observed as early as 1-2 billion years after the Big Bang6-13. These galaxies are extremely constraining on theoretical models, as they had formed 300-500 Myr earlier, and only some models can form massive galaxies this early12,14. Here we report on the spectroscopic observations with the JWST of a massive quiescent galaxy ZF-UDS-7329 at redshift 3.205 ± 0.005. It has eluded deep ground-based spectroscopy8, it is significantly redder than is typical and its spectrum reveals features typical of much older stellar populations. Detailed modelling shows that its stellar population formed around 1.5 billion years earlier in time (z ≈ 11) at an epoch when dark matter halos of sufficient hosting mass had not yet assembled in the standard scenario4,5. This observation may indicate the presence of undetected populations of early galaxies and the possibility of significant gaps in our understanding of early stellar populations, galaxy formation and the nature of dark matter.
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OBJECTIVES: The role played by medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) glutamate (Glu) and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the pathophysiology and the treatment of major depression (MD) is increasingly recognized. Although measurements of MPFC GABA and Glu have been shown to be sensitive to physiological fluctuations of female hormones, none of the magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) investigations of MPFC Glu and GABA in MD have controlled for possible bias effect of the reproductive stage of the women included. METHODS: MPFC Glu and GABA+ (which include homocarnosine and macromolecules) referenced to creatine and phosphocreatine, were measured via magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) using a 3-Tesla magnet in 24 women with MD and 24 healthy women paired for reproductive status. All participants were unmedicated. RESULTS: There were no statistical differences in either MPFC Glu [95 % CI: (-0.025, 0.034)] or MPFC GABA+ [95 % CI: (-0.005, 0.017)] between women with MD and healthy controls. CONCLUSIONS: Our investigation does not support abnormalities in measurement of MPFC Glu and GABA in MD women when stringent control for reproductive status is performed. As a result of the inherent limitations of MRS methodology, our results do not preclude glutamatergic and GABAergic dysregulations in the MPFC of women with MD.
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Transtorno Depressivo Maior , Ácido Glutâmico , Feminino , Humanos , Transtorno Depressivo Maior/tratamento farmacológico , Depressão , Córtex Pré-Frontal/diagnóstico por imagem , Ácido gama-AminobutíricoRESUMO
After a century of using the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine, our understanding of its ability to provide protection against homologous (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) or heterologous (for example, influenza virus) infections remains limited. Here we show that systemic (intravenous) BCG vaccination provides significant protection against subsequent influenza A virus infection in mice. We further demonstrate that the BCG-mediated cross-protection against influenza A virus is largely due to the enrichment of conventional CD4+ effector CX3CR1hi memory αß T cells in the circulation and lung parenchyma. Importantly, pulmonary CX3CR1hi T cells limit early viral infection in an antigen-independent manner via potent interferon-γ production, which subsequently enhances long-term antimicrobial activity of alveolar macrophages. These results offer insight into the unknown mechanism by which BCG has persistently displayed broad protection against non-tuberculosis infections via cross-talk between adaptive and innate memory responses.
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Vacina BCG , Vírus da Influenza A , Infecções por Orthomyxoviridae , Animais , Camundongos , Administração Intravenosa , Vacina BCG/imunologia , Células T de Memória , Imunidade Treinada , Vacinação , Infecções por Orthomyxoviridae/imunologia , Infecções por Orthomyxoviridae/prevenção & controleRESUMO
This paper presents a novel design and control strategies for a parallel two degrees-of-freedom (DOF) flexure-based micropositioning stage for large-range manipulation applications. The motion-guiding beam utilizes a compound hybrid compliant prismatic joint (CHCPJ) composed of corrugated and leaf flexures, ensuring increased compliance in primary directions and optimal stress distribution with minimal longitudinal length. Additionally, a four-beam parallelogram compliant prismatic joint (4BPCPJ) is used to improve the motion decoupling performance by increasing the off-axis to primary stiffness ratio. The mechanism's output compliance and dynamic characteristics are analyzed using the compliance matrix method and Lagrange approach, respectively. The accuracy of the analysis is verified through finite element analysis (FEA) simulation. In order to examine the mechanism performance, a laser interferometer-based experimental setup is established. In addition, a linear active disturbance rejection control (LADRC) is developed to enhance the motion quality. Experimental results illustrate that the mechanism has the capability to provide a range of 2.5 mm and a resolution of 0.4 µm in both the X and Y axes. Furthermore, the developed stage has improved trajectory tracking and disturbance rejection capabilities.
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BACKGROUND: To compare tidal volume (VT) delivery with compliance at 0.5 and 1.5 mL/cmH2O using four different ventilation (PPV) devices (i.e., self-inflating bag (SIB), T-Piece resuscitator, Next Step (a novel Neonatal Resuscitator), and Fabian ventilator (conventional neonatal ventilator) using a neonatal piglet model. DESIGN/METHODS: Randomized experimental animal study using 10 mixed-breed neonatal piglets (1-3 days; 1.8-2.4 kg). Piglets were anesthetized, intubated, instrumented, and randomized to receive positive pressure ventilation (PPV) for one minute with a SIB with or without a respiratory function monitor (RFM), T-Piece resuscitator with or without an RFM, Next Step, and Fabian Ventilator with both compliance levels. Compliance changes were achieved by placing a wrap around the piglets' chest and tightened it. Our primary outcome was targeted VT delivery of 5 mL/kg at 0.5 and 1.5 mL/cmH2O lung compliance. RESULTS: At 0.5 mL/cmH2O compliance, the mean(SD) expired VT with the Next Step was 5.1(0.2) mL/kg compared to the Fabian 4.8(0.5) mL/kg, SIB 8.9(3.6) mL/kg, SIB + RFM 4.5(1.8) mL/kg, T-Piece 7.4(4.3) mL/kg, and T-Piece+RFM 6.4(3.1) mL/kg. At 1.5 mL/cmH2O compliance, the mean(SD) expired VT with the Next Step was 5.2(0.6) mL/kg compared to the Fabian 4.4(0.7) mL/kg, SIB 12.1(5.3) mL/kg, SIB + RFM 9.4(3.9) mL/kg, T-Piece 8.6(1.5) mL/kg, and T-Piece+RFM 6.5 (1.6) mL/kg. CONCLUSION: The Next Step provides consistent VT during PPV, which is comparable to a mechanical ventilator. IMPACT: Current guidelines recommend fixed peak inflation pressure in resuscitation, linked to lung and brain injury. The Next Step Neonatal Resuscitator, a cost-effective device, offers volume-targeted positive pressure ventilation with consistent tidal volumes. With two different compliances, the Next Step Neonatal Resuscitator delivered a consistent tidal volume which was similar to a mechanical ventilator. The Next Step Neonatal Resuscitator outperformed self-inflating bags and T-Pieces in delivering targeted tidal volumes. The Next Step Neonatal Resuscitator could be an alternative ventilation device for neonatal resuscitation.
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Animais Recém-Nascidos , Respiração com Pressão Positiva , Volume de Ventilação Pulmonar , Animais , Respiração com Pressão Positiva/instrumentação , Suínos , Complacência Pulmonar , Ovinos , Pulmão/fisiologia , Ventiladores Mecânicos , Desenho de Equipamento , Modelos AnimaisRESUMO
Despite the worldwide application of vaccination and other antiviral interventions, pulmonary viral infections remain a persistent threat to human health. The 1918 influenza pandemic killed more than 40 million people in just one year, and the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has killed more than 6.9 million people since 2019. While the current approved COVID-19 vaccines are administered parenterally and induce systemic immunity, they only prevent the progression to severe disease. Thus, other vaccine platforms are still needed for completely preventing the disease and subsequent transmission. In this issue of the JCI, Kawai et al. present an adjuvant-free subunit (RBD-HA) fusion vaccine, which produces robust IgG and IgA antibody responses against SARS-CoV-2, enriched within the nasal cavity, by using the host's preexisting immunity to influenza infection. This preclinical study has tremendous implications for future mucosal vaccine design and provides a roadmap for generating a safer and effective intranasal vaccine against pulmonary infections.
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Vacinas contra Influenza , Influenza Humana , Humanos , Influenza Humana/prevenção & controle , Vacinas contra COVID-19 , Anticorpos Antivirais , Administração Intranasal , Vacinação , Imunidade nas MucosasRESUMO
Currently, most carbon monoxide (CO) gas sensors work at high temperatures of over 150 °C. Developing CO gas sensors that operate at room temperature is challenging because of the sensitivity trade-offs. Here, we report an ultrasensitive CO gas sensor at room temperature using fluorine-graphdiyne (F-GDY) in which electrons are increased by light. The GDY films used as channels of field-effect transistors were prepared by using chemical vapor deposition and were characterized by using various spectroscopic techniques. With exposure to UV light, F-GDY showed a more efficient photodoping effect than hydrogen-graphdiyne (H-GDY), resulting in a larger negative shift in the charge neutral point (CNP) to form an n-type semiconductor and an increase in the Fermi level from -5.27 to -5.01 eV. Upon CO exposure, the negatively shifted CNP moved toward a positive shift, and the electrical current decreased, indicating electron transfer from photodoped GDYs to CO. Dynamic sensing experiments demonstrated that negatively charged F-GDY is remarkably sensitive to an electron-deficient CO gas, even with a low concentration of 200 parts per billion. This work provides a promising solution for enhancing the CO sensitivity at room temperature and expanding the application of GDYs in electronic devices.
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In the current industrial revolution, advanced technologies and methods can be effectively utilized for the detection and verification of defects in high-speed steel filament production. This paper introduces an innovative methodology for the precise detection and verification of micro surface defects found in steel filaments through the application of the Eddy current principle. Permanent magnets are employed to generate a magnetic field with a high frequency surrounding a coil of sensors positioned at the filament's output end. The sensor's capacity to detect defects is validated through a meticulous rewinding process, followed by a thorough analysis involving scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Artificial defects were intentionally introduced into a sample, and their amplitudes were monitored to establish a threshold value. The amplitude signal of these created defect was identified at approximately 10% FSH, which corresponds to a crack depth of about 20 µm. In the experimental production of 182 samples covering 38 km, the defect ratio was notably high, standing at 26.37%. These defects appeared randomly along the length of the samples. The verification results underscore the exceptional precision achieved in the detection of micro surface defects within steel filaments. These defects were primarily characterized by longitudinal scratches and inclusions containing physical tungsten carbide.