Return to Sport After Multiligament Knee Injury in Young Athletes.

Background: While return to sport (RTS) in young athletes after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction has been well studied, little is known regarding their rate of RTS after multiligament knee injury (MLKI). Purpose: To assess the level of and factors associated with RTS after MLKI in young athletes. Study Design: Case series; Level of evidence, 4. Methods: We retrospectively identified 116 patients aged ≤23 years who had sustained an injury to ≥2 knee ligaments and undergone operative reconstruction or repair of ≥1 ligament. Our primary outcome was self-reported RTS at the preinjury level or higher. We estimated the likelihood of RTS using binomial logistic regression. Secondary variables included the 2000 International Knee Documentation Committee Subjective Knee Form (IKDC-SF), ACL-Return to Sport after Injury (ACL-RSI), and 12-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12) physical and mental health summaries. Results: A total of 30 (25.9%) patients (24 men, 6 women; mean age, 18.1 ± 2.5 years) completed patient-reported outcome surveys at a mean follow-up of 7.8 years (median, 6.6 years [range, 1.1-19.5 years]). A total of 28 patients underwent surgical treatment of ≥2 ligaments. RTS was achieved by 90% of patients, and 43.3% returned to their preinjury level or higher. Patients who had played sports at a higher level before injury were more likely to RTS at their preinjury level or higher (odds ratio [OR], 3.516 [95% CI, 1.034-11.955]; P = .044), while those who played cutting sports were less likely to do so (OR, 0.013 [95% CI, 0.000-0.461; P = .017). Patients who achieved RTS at their preinjury level or higher had significantly higher IKDC-SF and ACL-RSI scores versus patients who did not (P = .001 and P = .002, respectively). The number of ligaments injured, age, mental health diagnosis, and SF-12 scores were not associated with the ability to RTS at the preinjury or higher levels. Conclusion: Most young athletes who sustained MLKI were able to return to play at some level, but a minority returned to their preinjury level. Patients who did return at preinjury or higher levels had higher IKDC-SF and ACL-RSI scores than those who did not. Performance in cutting and/or pivoting sports was negatively associated with RTS.

Establishing a Consensus Definition of a Knee Fracture-Dislocation (Schenck Knee Dislocation V) Using a Global Modified Delphi Method.

BACKGROUND: Knee fracture-dislocations are complex injuries; however, there is no universally accepted definition of what constitutes a fracture-dislocation within the Schenck Knee Dislocation (KD) V subcategory. The purpose of this study was to establish a more precise definition for fracture patterns included within the Schenck KD V subcategory. METHODS: A series of clinical scenarios encompassing various fracture patterns in association with a bicruciate knee ligament injury was created by a working group of 8 surgeons. Utilizing a modified Delphi technique, 46 surgeons from 18 countries and 6 continents with clinical and academic expertise in multiligamentous knee injuries undertook 3 rounds of online surveys to establish consensus. Consensus was defined as ≥70% agreement with responses of either "strongly agree" or "agree" for a positive consensus or "strongly disagree" or "disagree" for a negative consensus. RESULTS: There was a 100% response rate for Rounds 1 and 2 and a 96% response rate for Round 3. A total of 11 fracture patterns reached consensus for inclusion: (1) nondisplaced articular fracture of the femur; (2) displaced articular fracture of the femur; (3) tibial plateau fracture involving the weight-bearing surface (with or without tibial spine involvement); (4) tibial plateau peripheral rim compression fracture; (5) posterolateral tibial plateau compression fracture, Bernholt type IIB; (6) posterolateral tibial plateau compression fracture, Bernholt type IIIA; (7) posterolateral tibial plateau compression fracture, Bernholt type IIIB; (8) Gerdy's tubercle avulsion fracture with weight-bearing surface involvement; (9) displaced tibial tubercle fracture; (10) displaced patellar body fracture; and (11) displaced patellar inferior pole fracture. Fourteen fracture patterns reached consensus for exclusion from the definition. Two fracture patterns failed to reach consensus for either inclusion or exclusion from the definition. CONCLUSIONS: Using a modified Delphi technique, this study established consensus for specific fracture patterns to include within or exclude from the Schenck KD V subcategory. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic Level V . See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Extensor Mechanism Disruption Impacts Treatment of Dislocated and Multiligament Injured Knees: Treatment and Schenck Classification Recommendations Based on a Global Delphi Method.

BACKGROUND: Multiligament knee injury (MLKI) with associated extensor mechanism (EM) involvement is a rare injury, with limited evidence to guide optimal treatment. The purpose of this study was to identify areas of consensus among a group of international experts regarding the treatment of patients with MLKI and concomitant EM injury. METHODS: Utilizing a classic Delphi technique, an international group of 46 surgeons from 6 continents with expertise in MLKI undertook 3 rounds of online surveys. Participants were presented with clinical scenarios involving EM disruption in association with MLKI, classified using the Schenck Knee-Dislocation (KD) Classification. Positive consensus was defined as ≥70% agreement with responses of either "strongly agree" or "agree," and negative consensus was defined as ≥70% agreement with "strongly disagree" or "disagree." RESULTS: There was a 100% response rate for rounds 1 and 2 and a 96% response rate for round 3. There was strong positive consensus (87%) that an EM injury in combination with MLKI significantly alters the treatment algorithm. For an EM injury in conjunction with a KD2, KD3M, or KD3L injury, there was positive consensus to repair the EM injury only and negative consensus regarding performing concurrent ligamentous reconstruction at the time of initial surgery. CONCLUSIONS: In the setting of bicruciate MLKI, there was overall agreement on the significant impact of EM injury on the treatment algorithm. We therefore recommend that the Schenck KD Classification be updated with the addition of the modifier suffix "-EM" to highlight this impact. Treatment of the EM injury was judged to have the highest priority, and there was consensus to treat the EM injury only. However, given the lack of clinical outcome data, treatment decisions need to be made on a case-by-case basis with consideration of the numerous clinical factors that are encountered. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Little clinical evidence exists to guide the surgeon on the management of EM injury in the setting of a multiligament injured or dislocated knee. This survey highlights the impact that EM injury has on the treatment algorithm and provides some guidance for management until a further large case series or prospective studies are undertaken.

Comparative Success of Repair Versus Reconstruction for Knee Extra-articular Ligament Injuries.

Background: Surgical techniques and associated outcomes in treating acute and chronic extra-articular ligament knee injuries are in evolution, and there is question as to whether repair or reconstruction is optimal. Purpose/Hypothesis: The purpose of this study was to compare the subsequent surgery rate between surgical repair versus reconstruction for all extra-articular ligament injuries of the knee utilizing a large database. Our hypothesis was that overall surgical repair of both lateral and medial extra-articular knee injuries would have a higher revision rate than those treated by reconstruction. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: The PearlDiver Mariner data set (2010-2019), with 122 million patients, was utilized to generate 2 patient cohorts: those who underwent surgical repair and those who underwent surgical reconstruction of a knee extra-articular ligament injury. All patients had a minimum of 2 years follow-up. Rates of concomitant or subsequent cruciate ligament reconstruction and rates of secondary procedures were assessed and compared between the 2 cohorts. Results: In total, 3563 patients were identified: extra-articular ligament reconstruction was performed for 2405 (67.5%), and repair was performed for 1158 (32.5%). Cruciate ligament reconstruction was performed for 986 (27.7%), of which 888 of 986 (90.1%) were performed on the same day as their extra-articular ligament procedure. At 2-year follow-up, the reconstruction cohort had higher rates of revision surgery compared with the repair cohort (8.2% vs 2.5%; P < .001). Conclusion: Using a large national database, knee extra-articular ligamentous reconstructions (those on both the lateral and the medial side) had a 3.3 times higher rate of revision surgery compared with repair at 2-year follow-up. Further study is needed to investigate the causes leading to revision surgery and to determine the optimal surgical treatment for both medial and lateral extra-articular knee ligament injuries.

Tibial Supra-tubercular Deflexion Osteotomy in the Management of Failed Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction: A Surgical Technique.

Excessive posterior tibial slope (PTS) is a recognized risk factor for failure of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) and should be considered when planning a revision ACLR. A tibial supra-tubercular deflexion osteotomy can correct excessive PTS with simultaneous or staged ACLR. There are only a handful of technical descriptions offering insight on the respective authors' approach at reducing PTS, all of which vary greatly in their methods. The authors describe a surgical technique using a proximal tibial supra-tubercular deflexion osteotomy in patients with persistent knee instability, a history of at least one failed ACLR, and a PTS greater than 12°. This surgery is not recommended in patients with significant genu recurvatum (>10°), significant varus, or severe tibiofemoral osteoarthritis.

A Biomechanical Comparison of the LaPrade Technique Versus a Novel Technique for Reconstruction of Medial-Sided Knee Injuries.

BACKGROUND: Medial-sided knee injuries can lead to symptomatic valgus laxity or anteromedial rotatory instability and may require surgery, particularly in the setting of cruciate tears and tibial-sided medial collateral ligament (MCL) avulsions. The LaPrade (LP) technique utilizes 2 free grafts to reconstruct the superficial MCL (sMCL) and the posterior oblique ligament (POL). An alternative MCL reconstruction devised by the senior author comprises an anatomic single-bundle reconstruction using a free graft to reconstruct the sMCL with advancement and imbrication of the posteromedial capsule/POL (MCL anatomic reconstruction with capsular imbrication [MARCI] technique). These techniques have not been biomechanically compared with one another. PURPOSE: To identify if one of these reconstruction techniques better restores valgus and rotational medial knee stability throughout the range of motion. STUDY DESIGN: Controlled laboratory study. METHODS: A total of 20 fresh-frozen, male (mean age, 43.7 years [range, 20-63 years]), midfemur-to-toe-matched cadaveric knees were utilized. All reconstructions were performed by a single fellowship-trained sports medicine surgeon. Left and right specimens within matched pairs were randomized to 1 of the 2 treatment groups: LP or MARCI. Each specimen was tested in 3 phases: (1) intact knee, (2) destabilized (MCL and POL completely severed), and (3) reconstructed (post-LP or post-MARCI reconstruction). We quantified valgus angulation defined by medial joint line opening, as well as internal and external tibial rotation at 0°, 20°, 30°, 60°, and 90° of knee flexion under applied external moments/torques at each phase. RESULTS: There were significant differences between the MARCI and LP reconstruction groups in valgus stability compared with the intact state (P = .021), with the MARCI reconstruction more closely approximating the intact knee. There was no overall difference between the MARCI and LP reconstruction techniques for internal rotation (P = .163), with both closely resembling the intact state. For external rotation, the effect of the reconstruction technique was dependent on the knee flexion angle (P < .001). At the highest angles, there were no differences between reconstructions; however, for lower knee flexion angles, the MARCI technique more closely resembled the intact state. CONCLUSION: Although both techniques improved knee stability compared with destabilized conditions, the MARCI technique better approximated intact stability during valgus at knee flexion angles from 0° to 90° and external rotation loads at knee flexion angles ≤30° in a cadaveric model. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The MARCI technique provides an alternative option to improve valgus stability throughout the range of motion. It utilizes a POL advancement without the potential limitations seen in the LP technique, such as multiple tunnel complexity and collision, particularly in the multiple ligament-injured knee.

Long-term National Trends of Arthroscopic Meniscal Repair and Debridement.

BACKGROUND: Optimal treatment of meniscal pathology continues to evolve in orthopaedic surgery, with a growing understanding of which patients benefit from which procedure and which patients might be best treated nonsurgically. In 2002, Moseley et al found no difference between arthroscopic procedures, including meniscal debridement and sham surgery, in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee. This called into question the role of routine arthroscopic debridement in these patients. Additionally, an increased interest in understanding and maintaining the function of the meniscus has more recently resulted in a greater focus on meniscal preservation procedures. STUDY DESIGN: Descriptive epidemiology study. PURPOSE/HYPOTHESIS: The purpose was to evaluate the trends of arthroscopic meniscal debridement and repair and the characteristics of the patients receiving these treatments, compare the differences in practice between newly trained orthopaedic sports medicine specialists and those of other specialties, and analyze if there are differences in practice by region. It was hypothesized that the American Board of Orthopaedic Surgery (ABOS) database would evaluate practice patterns of recent graduates as a surrogate for current treatment and training and, consequently, demonstrate a decreased rate of meniscal debridement. METHODS: Data from ABOS Part II examinees from 2001 to 2017 were obtained from the ABOS Case List. Current Procedure Terminology (CPT) codes related to arthroscopic meniscal treatment were selected. The examination year, age of the patient, practice region, and examinee subspecialty were analyzed. Patient age was stratified into 4 groups: <30, 30 to 50, 51 to 65, and >65 years. Examinee subspecialty was stratified into sports medicine and non-sports medicine. Statistical regression analysis was performed. RESULTS: Between 2001 and 2017, ABOS Part II examinees submitted 131,047 cases with CPT codes 29880 to 29883. Meniscal debridement volume decreased for all age groups during the study period, while repair increased. Sports medicine subspecialists were more likely than their counterparts to perform repair over debridement in patients aged younger than 30 years (P = .0004) and between 30 and 50 years (P = .0005). CONCLUSION: This study provides insights into arthroscopic meniscal debridement and repair practice trends among ABOS Part II examinees. Meniscal debridement is decreasing and meniscal repair is increasing. Younger patient age and treatment by a sports medicine subspecialty examinee are associated with a higher likelihood of repair over debridement.

Patellar Fracture After ACL Reconstruction: Open Reduction and Internal Fixation with a Maxillofacial Plate: A Case Report.

CASE: Patellar fractures after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction with a bone-patellar-tendon-bone (BPTB) autograft are a rare complication with a reported incidence of 0.2% to 2.3%. Treatment has previously been nonoperative splinting, lag screws, or a tension-band construct. We present the case of a 14-year-old adolescent girl who suffered a comminuted patella fracture 4 weeks after an ACL reconstruction using a BPTB autograft who subsequently underwent successful operative fixation through a novel technique with the use of a maxillofacial plate and screw system. CONCLUSION: A maxillofacial plate and screw system is an effective and reliable treatment option for patellar fractures sustained after ACL reconstruction with a BPTB autograft.

Is Diagnostic Arthroscopy at the Time of Medial Patellofemoral Ligament Reconstruction Necessary?

BACKGROUND: Although medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL) reconstruction is well described for patellar instability, the utility of arthroscopy at the time of stabilization has not been fully defined. PURPOSE: To determine whether diagnostic arthroscopy in conjunction with MPFL reconstruction is associated with improvement in functional outcome, pain, and stability or a decrease in perioperative complications. STUDY DESIGN: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS: Patients who underwent primary MPFL reconstruction without tibial tubercle osteotomy were reviewed (96 patients, 101 knees). Knees were divided into MPFL reconstruction without arthroscopy (n = 37), MPFL reconstruction with diagnostic arthroscopy (n = 41), and MPFL reconstruction with a targeted arthroscopic procedure (n = 23). Postoperative pain, motion, imaging, operative findings, perioperative complications, need for revision procedure, and postoperative Kujala scores were recorded. RESULTS: Pain at 2 weeks and 3 months postoperatively was similar between groups. Significantly improved knee flexion at 2 weeks was seen after MPFL reconstruction without arthroscopy versus reconstruction with diagnostic and reconstruction with targeted arthroscopic procedures (58° vs 42° and 48°, respectively; P = .02). Significantly longer tourniquet times were seen for targeted arthroscopic procedures versus the diagnostic and no arthroscopic procedures (73 vs 57 and 58 min, respectively; P = .0002), and significantly higher Kujala scores at follow-up were recorded after MPFL reconstruction without arthroscopy versus reconstruction with diagnostic and targeted arthroscopic procedures (87.8 vs 80.2 and 70.1, respectively; P = .05; 42% response rate). There was no difference between groups in knee flexion, recurrent instability, or perioperative complications at 3 months. Diagnostic arthroscopy yielded findings not previously appreciated on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 35% of patients, usually resulting in partial meniscectomy. CONCLUSION: Diagnostic arthroscopy with MPFL reconstruction may result in findings not previously appreciated on MRI. Postoperative pain, range of motion, and risk of complications were equal at 3 months postoperatively with or without arthroscopy. Despite higher Kujala scores in MPFL reconstruction without arthroscopy, the relationship between arthroscopy and patient-reported outcomes remains unclear. Surgeons can consider diagnostic arthroscopy but should be aware of no clear benefits in patient outcomes.

Initial Evaluation and Classification of Knee Dislocations.

The traumatic knee dislocation (KD) is a complex condition resulting in injury to >1 ligament or ligament complexes about the knee, termed multiligament knee injuries. Typically, KDs result in injury to both cruciate ligaments with variable injury to collateral ligament complexes. Very rarely, KD may occur with single cruciate injuries combined with collateral involvement but it is important to understand that not all multiligament knee injuries are KDs. Patients can present in a wide spectrum of severity; from frank dislocation of the tibiofemoral joint to a spontaneously reduced KD, either with or without neurovascular injury. The initial evaluation of these injuries should include a thorough patient history and physical examination, with particularly close attention to vascular status which has the most immediate treatment implications. Multiple classification systems have been developed for KDs, with the anatomic classification having the most practical application.

Critical Evaluation of the Methodologic Quality of the Top 50 Cited Articles Relating to Knee Dislocation and Multiligamentous Knee Injury.

BACKGROUND: Many studies have evaluated the management of knee dislocations (KDs) and multiligamentous knee injuries (MLKIs). However, no study to date has analyzed the quality of the most cited articles in this literature. HYPOTHESIS: There is a positive correlation between the number of article citations in the KD and MLKI literature and their methodologic quality. STUDY DESIGN: Systematic review. METHODS: The Web of Science online database was searched to identify the top 50 cited articles in KD and MLKI care. Demographic data were recorded for each study. The Modified Coleman Methodology Score (MCMS) and the Methodological Index for Non-randomized Studies (MINORS) were used to analyze the methodological quality of each article. Spearman correlation coefficients (r s) were then calculated. RESULTS: The articles identified were published between 1958 and 2015 in a wide variety of peer-reviewed journals (n = 16). The majority of study level of evidence (LOE) was of low quality (level 5, 16%; level 4, 54%; level 3, 16%; level 2, 14%). There were no studies of level 1 evidence. The mean MCMS and MINORS scores were 29.0 (SD, 19.1; range, 3-72) and 6.1 (SD, 3.7; range, 0-14), respectively. No significant correlation was identified between the number of citations and the publication year, LOE, MCMS, or MINORS (r s = 0.123 [P = .396]; r s = 0.125 [P = .389]; r s = 0.182 [P = .204]; and r s = 0.175 [P = .224], respectively). Positive correlations were observed between improved MCMS and MINORS scores and more recent year of publication (r s = 0.43 [P = .002]; r s = 0.32 [P = .022]) as well as improved study LOE (r s = 0.65 [P < .001]; r s = 0.67 [P < .001]). CONCLUSION: The top 50 cited articles on KD and MLKI care consisted of low LOE and methodological quality, with no existing level 1 articles. There was no significant correlation between the number of citations and publication year, LOE, or study methodological quality. Positive correlations were observed between later publication date and improved methodological quality.

A Biomechanical Comparison of the Arciero and LaPrade Reconstruction for Posterolateral Corner Knee Injuries.

BACKGROUND: Injury to the posterolateral corner (PLC) of the knee requires reconstruction to restore coronal and rotary stability. Two commonly used procedures are the Arciero reconstruction technique (ART) and the LaPrade reconstruction technique (LRT). To the authors' knowledge, these techniques have not been biomechanically compared against one another. PURPOSE: To identify if one of these reconstruction techniques better restores stability to a PLC-deficient knee and if concomitant injury to the proximal tibiofibular joint or anterior cruciate ligament affects these results. STUDY DESIGN: Controlled laboratory study. METHODS: Eight matched-paired cadaveric specimens from the midfemur to toes were used. Each specimen was tested in 4 phases: intact PLC (phase 1), PLC sectioned (phase 2), PLC reconstructed (ART or LRT) (phase 3), and tibiofibular (phase 4A) or anterior cruciate ligament (phase 4B) sectioning with PLC reconstructed. Varus angulation and external rotation at 0º, 20º, 30º, 60º, and 90º of knee flexion were quantified at each phase. RESULTS: In phase 3, both reconstructions were effective at restoring laxity back to the intact state. However, in phase 4A, both reconstructions were ineffective at stabilizing the joint owing to tibiofibular instability. In phase 4B, both reconstructions had the potential to restrict varus angulation motion. There were no statistically significant differences found between reconstruction techniques for varus angulation or external rotation at any degree of flexion in phase 3 or 4. CONCLUSION: The LRT and ART are equally effective at restoring stability to knees with PLC injuries. Neither reconstruction technique fully restores stability to knees with combined PLC and proximal tibiofibular joint injuries. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Given these findings, surgeons may select their reconstruction technique based on their experience and training and the specific needs of their patients.

Knee Dislocation (KD) IV Injuries of the Knee: Presentation, Treatment, and Outcomes.

"KDIV ligamentous injuries of the knee are frequently high-energy injuries with significant soft tissue disruption, gross knee instability, and rarely are treated nonoperatively. KDIVs frequently require external fixation, but when presenting in an isolated fashion can be reconstructed in one setting. Five presentations of KDIV injury are described: closed with multitrauma/closed head injury requiring external fixation, irreducible KDIV requiring semi-emergent open reduction and repair, isolated KDIV without arterial injury undergoing 4-ligament reconstruction after regaining motion, KDIV with varus and slight thrust undergoing medial opening osteotomy before ligament reconstruction, and KDIV with failed ligaments requiring revision and posterior tibial tendon transfer."

Management of injuries in snowboarders: rehabilitation and return to activity.

Snowboarding has seen a continuous increase in popularity, leading to an increase in the number of snowboarding injuries seen in orthopedic practice. Upper-extremity injuries are more common than lower-extremity, spine, and pelvis injuries. In this review, we focus on the most common snowboarding injuries of the extremities, spine, and pelvis and provide an overview of their respective rehabilitation and return-to-sport protocols. Despite many of the injuries seen in snowboarding also occurring in other sports, objective data about rehabilitation and return to sport are lacking for many injuries. This provides an opportunity for research in the area with regard to many sports and many different injuries.

Evaluation of the Tibial Tubercle to Posterior Cruciate Ligament Distance in a Pediatric Patient Population.

BACKGROUND: Evaluation of distal extensor mechanism alignment continues to evolve in children with patella instability. Prior studies support the use of the tibial tubercle to trochlear groove (TT-TG) distance but limitations exist for this measurement including: changes in the TT-TG distance with knee flexion, difficulty with finding the deepest part of a dysplastic trochlea, and limitations regarding identification of the site of the anatomic abnormality. The tibial tubercle-posterior cruciate ligament (TT-PCL) distance has been introduced as an alternative measure to address the shortcomings in the TT-TG distance by quantifying the position of the TT independent of the trochlea and with respect to the tibia only. The objectives of this study were to (1) confirm that TT-PCL measurements in the pediatric population are reliable and reproducible; (2) determine whether normal TT-PCL distance changes with age; and (3) compare TT-PCL distances in patients with and without patellar instability to assess its utility in the workup of pediatric patellar instability. METHODS: All knee magnetic resonance imaging performed for patients from birth to 15.9 years of age at our institution between December 2004 and February 2012 were retrospectively collected (total 566). Eighty-two patients had patellar instability and 484 patients did not have patellar instability. Two magnetic resonance imaging reviewers measured TT-PCL distance on T2-weighted axial images in a blinded manner. Intraobserver and interobserver agreement was measured. Correlation between TT-PCL distance and age as well as group differences between mean TT-PCL distances was evaluated. RESULTS: Intraobserver and interobserver agreement was excellent (0.93) and very good (0.80), respectively. The mean TT-PCL distance was 20.1 mm with a range of 5.8 to 32.1 mm. The mean age was 12.6 years with a range of 0.8 to 15.9 years. The average TT-PCL distance was 21 mm for the instability group and 19.9 mm for the control group. TT-PCL distance increased significantly as subject age increased; however, there was no significant measurement difference shown between the patellar instability group and the control group. CONCLUSIONS: TT-PCL distance increased with age in the pediatric population but did not correlate with recurrent patella instability in this pediatric cohort. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III-diagnostic.

Distal tibia allograft for glenohumeral instability: does radius of curvature match?

BACKGROUND: A distal tibia osteochondral allograft is a potential graft option for glenoid reconstruction because the distal tibia may have a similar radius of curvature (ROC) as the glenoid. This study evaluated ROC mismatch as measured on computed tomography (CT) scans between the glenoid, distal tibia, and humeral head. METHODS: Bilateral CT images were formatted for 10 decedents from the Office of the Medical Investigator database, giving 20 specimens per anatomic location. The ROCs of the glenoid, distal tibia, and humeral head were measured. A statistical model was generated to assess ROC mismatch of randomly paired distal tibias and glenoids. RESULTS: The mean ± standard deviation ROC was 2.9 ± 0.25 cm for the glenoid, 2.3 ± 0.21 cm for the distal tibia, and 2.5 ± 0.12 cm for the humeral head. No differences were found in laterality, intraobserver, or interobserver measurements. The least-squares difference in the ROC between the glenoid and tibia was 0.57 cm, glenoid and humerus was 0.40 cm, and humerus and tibia was 0.17 cm. Only 22% of randomly paired distal tibias and glenoids had a difference in ROC of 0.3 cm or less. CONCLUSION: CT measurement of the ROC of the glenoid, distal tibia, and humeral head is reliable and reproducible. The probability of obtaining a random distal tibia allograft with a similar ROC to the glenoid is low. Obtaining ROC measurements of the injured glenoid and the distal tibia allograft specimen before use for glenoid reconstruction may be useful.

Knee Articular Cartilage Repair and Restoration Techniques: A Review of the Literature.

CONTEXT: Isolated chondral and osteochondral defects of the knee are a difficult clinical challenge, particularly in younger patients for whom alternatives such as partial or total knee arthroplasty are rarely advised. Numerous surgical techniques have been developed to address focal cartilage defects. Cartilage treatment strategies are characterized as palliation (eg, chondroplasty and debridement), repair (eg, drilling and microfracture [MF]), or restoration (eg, autologous chondrocyte implantation [ACI], osteochondral autograft [OAT], and osteochondral allograft [OCA]). EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: PubMed was searched for treatment articles using the keywords knee, articular cartilage, and osteochondral defect, with a focus on articles published in the past 5 years. STUDY DESIGN: Clinical review. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level 4. RESULTS: In general, smaller lesions (<2 cm(2)) are best treated with MF or OAT. Furthermore, OAT shows trends toward greater longevity and durability as well as improved outcomes in high-demand patients. Intermediate-size lesions (2-4 cm(2)) have shown fairly equivalent treatment results using either OAT or ACI options. For larger lesions (>4 cm(2)), ACI or OCA have shown the best results, with OCA being an option for large osteochondritis dissecans lesions and posttraumatic defects. CONCLUSION: These techniques may improve patient outcomes, though no single technique can reproduce normal hyaline cartilage.

Surgical treatment of medial instability of the knee.

Medial collateral ligament (MCL) injuries are commonly seen in orthopedic practice. Most MCL injuries are isolated and can be treated nonsurgically with focus on brace protection of the ligament, range of motion, gait training, and relatively quick return to full activity. A subset of MCL injuries, however, requires operative treatment. It is critical to identify patients with medial instability and develop an operative plan that will restore stability and function to the injured knee. Many MCL reconstruction and repair techniques have been described, and improvement in outcomes with improvement of technique remains an area of great interest. This review discusses several MCL reconstruction options and outlines the authors' preferred MCL reconstruction technique.

Chondroblastoma of the knee treated with resection and osteochondral allograft reconstruction.

Case. This case report describes the operative management of 16-year-old male with a symptomatic chondroblastoma of the distal femur with breach of the chondral surface. Following appropriate imaging and core needle biopsy, the diagnosis was confirmed histologically. The patient then underwent intralesional curettage and osteochondral allograft reconstruction of the defect. At one-year follow-up the patient was pain-free and has obtained excellent range of motion. There is radiographic evidence of allograft incorporation and no evidence of local recurrence. Conclusion. Osteochondral allograft reconstruction is an effective option following marginal resection and curettage of chondroblastoma involving the chondral surface of the distal femur.