Arsenic Concentrations in Ground and Surface Waters across Arizona Including Native Lands.

Parts of the Southwestern United States report arsenic levels in water resources that are above the United States Environmental Protection Agency's current drinking water limits. Prolonged exposure to arsenic through food and drinking water can contribute to significant health problems including cancer, developmental effects, cardiovascular disease, neurotoxicity, and diabetes. In order to understand exposure risks, water sampling and testing has been conducted throughout Arizona. This information is available to the public through often non-overlapping databases that are difficult to access and in impracticable formats. The current study utilized a systemic compilation of online databases to compile a spreadsheet containing over 33,000 water samples. The reported arsenic concentrations from these databases were collected from 1990-2017. Using ArcGIS software, these data were converted into a map shapefile and overlaid onto a map of Arizona. This visual representation shows that arsenic levels in surface and ground water exceed the United States Environmental Protection Agency's drinking water limits for many sites in several counties in Arizona, and there is an underrepresentation of sampling in several tribal jurisdictions. This information is useful for water managers and private well owners throughout the State for determining safe drinking water sources and limiting exposure to arsenic.

Effects of pheromone and plant volatile release rates and ratios on trapping Anoplophora glabripennis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in China.

Native to China and Korea, the Asian longhorned beetle, Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), is a polyphagous wood-boring pest for which a trapping system would greatly benefit eradication and management programs in both the introduced and native ranges. Over two field seasons, a total of 160 flight intercept panel traps were deployed in Harbin, China, which trapped a total of 65 beetles. In 2012, traps using lures with a 1:1 ratio of the male-produced pheromone components (4-(n-heptyloxy)butanal and 4-(n-heptyloxy)butan-1-ol) designed to release at a rate of 1 or 4 milligram per day per component in conjunction with the plant volatiles (-)-linalool, trans-caryophyllene, and (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol caught significantly more A. glabripennis females than other pheromone release rates, other pheromone ratios, plant volatiles only, and no lure controls. Males were caught primarily in traps baited with plant volatiles only. In 2013, 10× higher release rates of these plant volatiles were tested, and linalool oxide was evaluated as a fourth plant volatile in combination with a 1:1 ratio of the male-produced pheromone components emitted at a rate of 2 milligram per day per component. Significantly more females were trapped using the pheromone with the 10-fold higher three or four plant volatile release rates compared with the plant volatiles only, low four plant volatile + pheromone, and control. Our findings show that the male-produced pheromone in combination with plant volatiles can be used to detect A. glabripennis. Results also indicate that emitters should be monitored during the field season, as release rates fluctuate with environmental conditions and can be strongly influenced by formulation additives.

Development and evaluation of a trapping system for Anoplophora glabripennis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in the United States.

Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), commonly known as the Asian longhorned beetle, is an invasive wood-boring pest that infests a number of hardwood species and causes considerable economic losses in North America, several countries in Europe, and in its native range in Asia. The success of eradication efforts may depend on early detection of introduced populations; however, detection has been limited to identification of tree damage (oviposition pits and exit holes), and the serendipitous collection of adults, often by members of the public. Here we describe the development, deployment, and evaluation of semiochemical-baited traps in the greater Worcester area in Massachusetts. Over 4 yr of trap evaluation (2009-2012), 1013 intercept panel traps were deployed, 876 of which were baited with three different families of lures. The families included lures exhibiting different rates of release of the male-produced A. glabripennis pheromone, lures with various combinations of plant volatiles, and lures with both the pheromone and plant volatiles combined. Overall, 45 individual beetles were captured in 40 different traps. Beetles were found only in traps with lures. In several cases, trap catches led to the more rapid discovery and management of previously unknown areas of infestation in the Worcester county regulated area. Analysis of the spatial distribution of traps and the known infested trees within the regulated area provides an estimate of the relationship between trap catch and beetle pressure exerted on the traps. Studies continue to optimize lure composition and trap placement.

What is community? An evidence-based definition for participatory public health.

Increased emphasis on community collaboration indicates the need for consensus regarding the definition of community within public health. This study examined whether members of diverse US communities described community in similar ways. To identify strategies to support community collaboration in HIV vaccine trials, qualitative interviews were conducted with 25 African Americans in Durham, NC; 26 gay men in San Francisco, Calif; 25 injection drug users in Philadelphia, Pa; and 42 HIV vaccine researchers across the United States. Verbatim responses to the question "What does the word community mean to you?" were analyzed. Cluster analysis was used to identify similarities in the way community was described. A common definition of community emerged as a group of people with diverse characteristics who are linked by social ties, share common perspectives, and engage in joint action in geographical locations or settings. The participants differed in the emphasis they placed on particular elements of the definition. Community was defined similarly but experienced differently by people with diverse backgrounds. These results parallel similar social science findings and confirm the viability of a common definition for participatory public health.

The Atlanta Urban Networks Study: a blueprint for endemic transmission.

OBJECTIVE: To study prospectively social networks and behavior in a group of persons at risk for HIV because of their drug-using and sexual practices, with particular emphasis on the interaction of risks and concomitant network structure. METHODS: A longitudinal study was conducted of 228 respondents in Atlanta, Georgia in six inner-city community chains of connected persons, interviewing primary respondents and a sample of their contacts every 6 months for 2 years. Ascertained were: HIV and immunologic status; demographic, medical, and behavioral factors; and the composition of the social, sexual, and drug-using networks. RESULTS: The prevalence of HIV in this group was 13.3% and the incidence density was 1.8% per year. Substantial simultaneity of risk-taking was observed, with a high level of both non-injecting (crack, 82%) and injecting (heroin, cocaine or both, 16 30%) drug use, the exchange of sex or money for drugs by men (approximately 35%) and women (57-71%), and high frequency of same-sex sexual activity by men (9.4%) and women (33%). The intensity of interaction, as measured by network features such as microstructures and concurrency, was significantly greater than that observed in a low prevalence area with little endemic transmission. CONCLUSION: The traditional hierarchical classification of risk for HIV may impede our understanding of transmission dynamics, which, in the setting of an inner-city population, is characterized by simultaneity of risk-taking, and moderately intense network interactions. The study provides further evidence for the relationship of network structure to transmission dynamics, but highlights the difficulties of using network information for prediction of individual seroconversion.

Alcohol as a risk factor for HIV transmission among American Indian and Alaska Native drug users.

Quantitative alcohol interviews conducted as part of the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) Native American Supplement revealed very high rates of alcohol use among American Indian and Alaska Native active crack and injection drug users (IDUs). Of 147 respondents who completed the alcohol questionnaire, 100& percent had drunk alcohol within the past month, almost 42& percent reported that they drank every day, and 50& percent drank until they were drunk one-half of the time or more. Injection drug users (IDUs) demonstrated the highest frequency and quantity of alcohol use in the past 30 days. A significant positive association was also found between crack and alcohol use in the past 48 hours (c(2)=5.30, p<.05). Finally, those claiming more episodes of using alcohol before or during sex, reported significantly more events of unprotected sexual intercourse. Qualitative data from all four sites corroborated these quantitative findings. Many individuals also reported episodes of blacking out while drinking, and learned later that they had had unprotected sex with complete strangers or individuals they would not otherwise accept as partners. Implications of these findings for HIV/AIDS prevention efforts are addressed.

Consensus theory model of AIDS/SIDA beliefs in four Latino populations.

To describe Latino beliefs about AIDS (SIDA), Latino adults were sampled at two U.S. sites (Connecticut and Texas) and two international sites (Mexico and Guatemala). A 125-item questionnaire covered risk factors, symptoms, treatments, and sequellae of AIDS. The cultural consensus model was used to determine the cultural beliefs for each sample. Responses from 161 people indicated that a single set of beliefs was present at each site and that beliefs were shared across sites. Comparison of answers between samples indicated high agreement (p < .0007). The proportion of shared beliefs, however, decreased significantly between samples: .68 in Connecticut, .60 in Texas, .51 in Mexico, and .41 in Guatemala (p < .05). The proportion of positive answers similarly decreased from Connecticut to Guatemala (p < .001). Beliefs were stronger and more detailed in the higher prevalence areas. Furthermore, Latino beliefs tended to converge on biomedical beliefs about the disease.

HIV/AIDS risks among Native American drug users: key findings from focus group interviews and implications for intervention strategies.

A multisite study funded through the National Institute on Drug Abuse and the Office of Research on Minority Health was conducted in 1996 to determine the HIV/AIDS prevention needs of Native American out-of-treatment drug users. In an effort to recommend directions for HIV/AIDS prevention programming, one component of this study entailed conducting a series of focus groups at each of four sites: Anchorage, Alaska; Denver, Colorado; Flagstaff, Arizona; and Tucson, Arizona. While some site differences were noted, several consistent thematic findings were revealed across all locations. Specifically, focus group members strongly recommended directly involving key members of the Native American community in conducting outreach and intervention activities, involving Native people as the sources of information, and utilizing local and tribally relevant forms of delivering the message. Other consistent themes included getting messages to smaller communities to prevent the potential "annihilation" of tribes, educating youth, and linking alcohol prevention education to HIV/AIDS education. Findings from this study support the idea that future HIV/AIDS prevention programs must take into account subgroup and individual level differences among Native American drug users.

Latino beliefs about diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To describe Latino beliefs about diabetes and assess heterogeneity in beliefs across different groups. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: This study comprised a survey of 161 representative Latino adults from four diverse communities: Hartford, Connecticut; Edinburg, Texas; Guadalajara, Mexico; and rural Guatemala. A 130-item questionnaire covered causes symptoms, and treatments for diabetes. Information on demographics and acquaintanceship with someone with diabetes was also collected. The cultural consensus model was used to analyze the variation in responses to determine whether the degree of consistency within and between samples was sufficient to warrant aggregation and description as a single set of beliefs. RESULTS: Homogeneous beliefs were present within each of the four samples. Although variability in responses increased significantly from Connecticut to Guatemala (P < 0.00005), there was significant agreement between samples on the answers (P < 0.0005). Answers tended to be concordant with the biomedical description of diabetes. Greater acculturation, higher educational attainment, and higher diabetes prevalence were associated with greater cultural knowledge about diabetes. In Connecticut, greater knowledge correlated with longer mainland U.S. residency (P < 0.05). In Mexico, those with average educational attainment knew more (P < 0.05). Finally, average knowledge levels were higher in communities with greater diabetes prevalence. CONCLUSIONS: The cultural consensus model facilitated assessment of cultural beliefs regarding diabetes and diabetes management. Overall, Latino cultural beliefs about diabetes were concordant with the biomedical model. Variation in responses tended to characterize less knowledge or experience with diabetes and not different beliefs.

Understanding HIV risks of chronic drug-using men who have sex with men.

Focus groups and individual structured interviews were conducted in six cities with 98 predominantly street-recruited men who had a recent history of smoking crack or injecting drugs and who reported having had sex with other men (MSM) in the past year. Twenty-six focus groups explored the cultural and social context of participant's drug use and sexual activity and addressed outreach and HIV prevention issues pertinent to this population. Narrative summaries developed from verbatim focus group transcripts identified seven themes: (a) sexual orientation and gender identity; (b) interactions within and between MSM networks; (c) drug use, sexual activity and personal relationships; (d) HIV transmission bridges; (e) preferred HIV information sources; (f) HIV knowledge, prevention practices and risk behaviours; and (g) availability of HIV and drug-related services. Of the 98 MSM drug users, 42% identified publicly as gay or homosexual; 35% identified publicly, but only 21% privately, as heterosexual. A total of 51% had one or more female sex partners in the past year. There was a high frequency of unprotected sex in conjunction with drug use and a distinct preference for having sex when high. For most participants, drug use rather than sexual orientation formed the core of personal identity. Participants reported associating primarily with other drug users, usually MSM, and had limited contact with people who did not use drugs and the mainstream gay community. Participants' sexual and drug-injecting activities were judged to be a bridge for transmission of HIV to both people who used drugs and those who did not.

Developing culturally sensitive HIV/AIDS and substance abuse prevention curricula for Native American youth.

In 1990, researchers and health care professionals joined with members of several southwestern Native American communities to form an HIV/AIDS and substance abuse prevention partnership. Culturally sensitive approaches to theory-based interventions were developed into highly replicable, structured, school-based and community-based intervention programs. Process evaluations indicated high levels of program acceptance and fidelity. Outcome evaluations demonstrated significant positive preventive intervention effects among participants. This article reports how NAPPASA school prevention curricula were developed and discusses three critical processes in developing these successful curricula: 1) selection of integrative theory to address the multi-dimensional antecedents of HIV/AIDS and substance abuse among Native Americans, 2) use of ethnographic methodology to obtain intensive input from target groups and community members to ensure cultural and developmental sensitivity in the curriculum, and 3) use of process and outcome evaluations of pilot and field trials to develop an optimal curriculum.

Drug use, AIDS, and ethnography: advanced ethnographic research methods exploring the HIV epidemic.

This chapter identifies and explores a small number of recently developed advanced ethnographic research methods. There are other techniques that provide an excellent adjunct to standard prevention research efforts, as well. These include the cultural models approach (Price 1987; Quinn and Holland 1987), anthropological decision modeling (Gladwin 1980, 1989; Plattner 1984; Young 1980), the advances in focus group techniques (Morgan 1989), the processes for using ethnographic interviews to create culturally competent survey questionnaires (Converse and Presser 1986), and the uses of systematic direct observations of public behavior. Some of these issues are explored in the references cited above, as well as in other recent articles (e.g., Trotter 1991; Trotter et al. 1995). The number of tools available to ethnographers is growing rapidly, and they promise to greatly increase the capacity to make important contributions to reducing the spread of HIV in human populations.

Empacho in four Latino groups: a study of intra- and inter-cultural variation in beliefs.

It is usually impossible to know if reported differences between cultures are due to cultural differences or due to a difference in the methods used to study the cultures. This paper describes a collaborative, multisite study using a shared methodology to study intra- and inter-cultural variation in beliefs. A series of standard interview schedules were used to study Latin American beliefs about empacho in Guatemala, Mexico, and in the United States (Mexican-Americans and Puerto Ricans). Results showed consistency in beliefs about empacho both within and between the four samples.

The cultural parameters of lead poisoning: a medical anthropologist's view of intervention in environmental lead exposure.

This article identifies four culturally shaped sources of lead exposure in human societies: modern and historic technological sources: food habits; culturally defined health beliefs; and beauty practices. Examples of these potential sources of lead poisoning are presented from current cultures. They include the use of lead-glazed cooking pottery in Mexican-American households; folk medical use of lead in Hispanic, Arabic, South Asian, Chinese, and Hmong communities; as well as the use of lead as a cosmetic in the Near East, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. Four interacting cultural conditions that create barriers to the reduction of lead exposure and lead poisoning are identified and discussed. These are knowledge deficiencies, communication resistance, cultural reinterpretations, and incongruity of explanatory models.

Folk medicine in the Southwest. Myths and medical facts.

The three folk illnesses described in this article--caida de mollera, susto, and empacho--can all be linked to recognized biologic conditions and therefore cannot be analyzed solely on the basis of sociocultural factors. Clearly, it would be a mistake to continue ignoring these syndromes in the Southwest on the assumption that they are "all in the mind" of Mexican-American patients. They must be assessed from the view that they are culturally different labels for serious medical conditions (eg, caida de mollera), that they are useful screening labels for patients with high disease loads (eg, susto), or that they are harmless in and of themselves but their treatment may have significant medical consequences (eg, empacho).

Ethnography and bioassay: combined methods for a preliminary screen of home remedies for potential pharmacological activity.

This paper introduces a combined set of anthropological and biological research techniques that allow a single researcher to conduct a field-based screen of ethnopharmaceutical resources, even under difficult field conditions. The results of one such screen, presented here, indicate that the most commonly used remedies in an ethnomedical system are also those most likely to contain active constituents. Several pragmatic and theoretical considerations deriving from these results are discussed.