Cyclin D2 is sufficient to drive ß cell self-renewal and regeneration.

Diabetes results from an inadequate mass of functional ß cells, due to either ß cell loss caused by autoimmune destruction (type I diabetes) or ß cell failure in response to insulin resistance (type II diabetes). Elucidating the mechanisms that regulate ß cell mass may be key to developing new techniques that foster ß cell regeneration as a cellular therapy to treat diabetes. While previous studies concluded that cyclin D2 is required for postnatal ß cell self-renewal in mice, it is not clear if cyclin D2 is sufficient to drive ß cell self-renewal. Using transgenic mice that overexpress cyclin D2 specifically in ß cells, we show that cyclin D2 overexpression increases ß cell self-renewal post-weaning and results in increased ß cell mass. ß cells that overexpress cyclin D2 are responsive to glucose stimulation, suggesting they are functionally mature. ß cells that overexpress cyclin D2 demonstrate an enhanced regenerative capacity after injury induced by streptozotocin toxicity. To understand if cyclin D2 overexpression is sufficient to drive ß cell self-renewal, we generated a novel mouse model where cyclin D2 is only expressed in ß cells of cyclin D2-/- mice. Transgenic overexpression of cyclin D2 in cyclin D2-/- ß cells was sufficient to restore ß cell mass, maintain normoglycaemia, and improve regenerative capacity when compared with cyclin D2-/- littermates. Taken together, our results indicate that cyclin D2 is sufficient to regulate ß cell self-renewal and that manipulation of its expression could be used to enhance ß cell regeneration.

DNA methylation directs functional maturation of pancreatic ß cells.

Pancreatic ß cells secrete insulin in response to postprandial increases in glucose levels to prevent hyperglycemia and inhibit insulin secretion under fasting conditions to protect against hypoglycemia. ß cells lack this functional capability at birth and acquire glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) during neonatal life. Here, we have shown that during postnatal life, the de novo DNA methyltransferase DNMT3A initiates a metabolic program by repressing key genes, thereby enabling the coupling of insulin secretion to glucose levels. In a murine model, ß cell-specific deletion of Dnmt3a prevented the metabolic switch, resulting in loss of GSIS. DNMT3A bound to the promoters of the genes encoding hexokinase 1 (HK1) and lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA) - both of which regulate the metabolic switch - and knockdown of these two key DNMT3A targets restored the GSIS response in islets from animals with ß cell-specific Dnmt3a deletion. Furthermore, DNA methylation-mediated repression of glucose-secretion decoupling genes to modulate GSIS was conserved in human ß cells. Together, our results reveal a role for DNA methylation to direct the acquisition of pancreatic ß cell function.

Nkx2.2 repressor complex regulates islet ß-cell specification and prevents ß-to-α-cell reprogramming.

Regulation of cell differentiation programs requires complex interactions between transcriptional and epigenetic networks. Elucidating the principal molecular events responsible for the establishment and maintenance of cell fate identities will provide important insights into how cell lineages are specified and maintained and will improve our ability to recapitulate cell differentiation events in vitro. In this study, we demonstrate that Nkx2.2 is part of a large repression complex in pancreatic ß cells that includes DNMT3a, Grg3, and HDAC1. Mutation of the endogenous Nkx2.2 tinman (TN) domain in mice abolishes the interaction between Nkx2.2 and Grg3 and disrupts ß-cell specification. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Nkx2.2 preferentially recruits Grg3 and HDAC1 to the methylated Aristaless homeobox gene (Arx) promoter in ß cells. The Nkx2.2 TN mutation results in ectopic expression of Arx in ß cells, causing ß-to-α-cell transdifferentiation. A corresponding ß-cell-specific deletion of DNMT3a is also sufficient to cause Arx-dependent ß-to-α-cell reprogramming. Notably, subsequent removal of Arx in the ß cells of Nkx2.2(TNmut/TNmut) mutant mice reverts the ß-to-α-cell conversion, indicating that the repressor activities of Nkx2.2 on the methylated Arx promoter in ß cells are the primary regulatory events required for maintaining ß-cell identity.

Skp2 is required for incretin hormone-mediated ß-cell proliferation.

The glucoincretin hormone glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and its analog exendin-4 (Ex-4) promote ß-cell growth and expansion. Here we report an essential role for Skp2, a substrate recognition component of SCF (Skp, Cullin, F-box) ubiquitin ligase, in promoting glucoincretin-induced ß-cell proliferation by regulating the cellular abundance of p27. In vitro, GLP-1 treatment increases Skp2 levels, which accelerates p27 degradation, whereas in vivo, loss of Skp2 prevents glucoincretin-induced ß-cell proliferation. Using inhibitors of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and Irs2 silencing RNA, we also show that the effects of GLP-1 in facilitating Skp2-dependent p27 degradation are mediated via the Irs2-phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase pathway. Finally, we show that down-regulation of p27 occurs in islets from aged mice and humans, although in these islets, age-dependent accumulation of p16(Ink4a) prevent glucoincretin-induced ß-cell proliferation; however, ductal cell proliferation is maintained. Taken together, these data highlight a critical role for Skp2 in glucoincretin-induced ß-cell proliferation.

Pancreatic ß cell identity is maintained by DNA methylation-mediated repression of Arx.

Adult pancreatic ß cells can replicate during growth and after injury to maintain glucose homeostasis. Here, we report that ß cells deficient in Dnmt1, an enzyme that propagates DNA methylation patterns during cell division, were converted to α cells. We identified the lineage determination gene aristaless-related homeobox (Arx), as methylated and repressed in ß cells, and hypomethylated and expressed in α cells and Dnmt1-deficient ß cells. We show that the methylated region of the Arx locus in ß cells was bound by methyl-binding protein MeCP2, which recruited PRMT6, an enzyme that methylates histone H3R2 resulting in repression of Arx. This suggests that propagation of DNA methylation during cell division also ensures recruitment of enzymatic machinery capable of modifying and transmitting histone marks. Our results reveal that propagation of DNA methylation during cell division is essential for repression of α cell lineage determination genes to maintain pancreatic ß cell identity.

Bmi-1 regulates the Ink4a/Arf locus to control pancreatic beta-cell proliferation.

The molecular mechanisms that regulate the age-induced increase of p16(INK4a) expression associated with decreased beta-cell proliferation and regeneration are not well understood. We report that in aged islets, derepression of the Ink4a/Arf locus is associated with decreased Bmi-1 binding, loss of H2A ubiquitylation, increased MLL1 recruitment, and a concomitant increase in H3K4 trimethylation. During beta-cell regeneration these histone modifications are reversed resulting in reduced p16(INK4a) expression and increased proliferation. We suggest that PcG and TrxG proteins impart a combinatorial code of histone modifications on the Ink4a/Arf locus to control beta-cell proliferation during aging and regeneration.

Age-dependent decline in beta-cell proliferation restricts the capacity of beta-cell regeneration in mice.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to elucidate whether age plays a role in the expansion or regeneration of beta-cell mass. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the capacity of beta-cell expansion in 1.5- and 8-month-old mice in response to a high-fat diet, after short-term treatment with the glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) analog exendin-4, or after streptozotocin (STZ) administration. RESULTS: Young mice responded to high-fat diet by increasing beta-cell mass and beta-cell proliferation and maintaining normoglycemia. Old mice, by contrast, did not display any increases in beta-cell mass or beta-cell proliferation in response to high-fat diet and became diabetic. To further assess the plasticity of beta-cell mass with respect to age, young and old mice were injected with a single dose of STZ, and beta-cell proliferation was analyzed to assess the regeneration of beta-cells. We observed a fourfold increase in beta-cell proliferation in young mice after STZ administration, whereas no changes in beta-cell proliferation were observed in older mice. The capacity to expand beta-cell mass in response to short-term treatment with the GLP-1 analog exendin-4 also declined with age. The ability of beta-cell mass to expand was correlated with higher levels of Bmi1, a polycomb group protein that is known to regulate the Ink4a locus, and decreased levels of p16(Ink4a)expression in the beta-cells. Young Bmi1(-/-) mice that prematurely upregulate p16(Ink4a)failed to expand beta-cell mass in response to exendin-4, indicating that p16(Ink4a)levels are a critical determinant of beta-cell mass expansion. CONCLUSIONS: beta-Cell proliferation and the capacity of beta-cells to regenerate declines with age and is regulated by the Bmi1/p16(Ink4a)pathway.

Essential role of Skp2-mediated p27 degradation in growth and adaptive expansion of pancreatic beta cells.

Diabetes results from an inadequate mass of functional beta cells, due to either beta cell loss caused by immune assault or the lack of compensation to overcome insulin resistance. Elucidating the mechanisms that regulate beta cell mass has important ramifications for fostering beta cell regeneration and the treatment of diabetes. We report here that Skp2, a substrate recognition component of Skp1-Cul1-F-box (SCF) ubiquitin ligase, played an essential and specific role in regulating the cellular abundance of p27 and was a critical determinant of beta cell proliferation. In Skp2(-/-) mice, accumulation of p27 resulted in enlarged polyploid beta cells as a result of endoreduplication replacing proliferation. Despite beta cell hypertrophy, Skp2(-/-) mice exhibited diminished beta cell mass, hypoinsulinemia, and glucose intolerance. Increased insulin resistance resulting from diet-induced obesity caused Skp2(-/-) mice to become overtly diabetic, because beta cell growth in the absence of cell division was insufficient to compensate for increased metabolic demand. These results indicate that the Skp2-mediated degradation pathway regulating the cellular degradation of p27 is essential for establishing beta cell mass and to respond to increased metabolic demand associated with insulin resistance.

CNS viral infection diverts homing of antibody-secreting cells from lymphoid organs to the CNS.

Neurotropic coronavirus infection of mice results in acute encephalomyelitis followed by viral persistence. Whereas cellular immunity controls acute infection, humoral immunity regulates central nervous system (CNS) persistence. Maintenance of serum Ab was correlated with tissue distribution of virus-specific Ab-secreting cells (ASC). Although virus-specific ASC declined in cervical lymph node and spleen after infectious virus clearance, virus-specific serum Ab was sustained at steady levels, with a delay in neutralizing Ab. Virus-specific ASC within the CNS peaked rapidly 1 wk after control of infectious virus and were retained throughout chronic infection, consistent with intrathecal Ab synthesis. Surprisingly, frequencies of ASC in the BM remained low and only increased gradually. Nevertheless, virus-specific ASC induced by peripheral infection localized to both spleen and BM. The data suggest that CNS infection provides strong stimuli to recruit ASC into the inflamed tissue through sustained up-regulation of the CXCR3 ligands CXCL9 and CXCL10. Irrespective of Ag deprivation, CNS retention of ASC coincided with elevated BAFF expression and ongoing differentiation of class II+ to class II-CD138+CD19+ plasmablasts. These results confirm the CNS as a major ASC-supporting environment, even after resolution of viral infection and in the absence of chronic ongoing inflammation.

The art of survival during viral persistence.

Central nervous system infection by the neurotropic JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus (JHMV) results in chronic demyelination characterized by viral persistence in the absence of infectious virus. CD8(+) T cells inhibit acute viral replication via cell type-specific effector mechanisms. Perforin-mediated cytolysis controls virus in microglia/macrophages and astrocytes, whereas interferon (IFN)-gamma regulates viral replication in oligodendroglia. JHMV infection of antibody-deficient mice confirmed a primary role of cellular immunity and a redundant role for humoral immunity during acute infection. However, infectious virus reactivates in antibody-deficient mice following viral clearance. This observation suggests that virus-specific T cells in the central nervous system are unable to control viral persistence. Reactivation in antibody-deficient mice is not associated with increased T-cell infiltration, but is prevented via transfer of neutralizing antibody. A vital role for humoral immunity during persistence is supported by the accumulation and retention of virus-specific antibody secreting cells following clearance of infectious virus. Thus, cell-mediated immune responses control acute infection, whereas humoral immunity maintains viral persistence. Therefore, although the central nervous system provides an environment for prolonged retention of both T cells and plasma cells, plasma cells are critical in maintaining persistent virus at undetectable levels. The low turnover of virus, T cells, and B cells constitute a unifying feature of persistent infection, illustrating the dichotomy between distinct immune effectors in regulating acute and persistent central nervous system infection.

Recruitment kinetics and composition of antibody-secreting cells within the central nervous system following viral encephalomyelitis.

Infection by the neurotropic JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus produces an acute demyelinating encephalomyelitis. While cellular immunity initially eliminates infectious virus, CNS viral persistence is predominantly controlled by humoral immunity. To better understand the distinct phases of immune control within the CNS, the kinetics of humoral immune responses were determined in infected mice. Early during clearance of the JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus, only few virus-specific Ab-secreting cells (ASC) were detected in the periphery or CNS, although mature B cells and ASC without viral specificity were recruited into the CNS concomitant with T cells. Serum antiviral Ab and CNS virus-specific ASC became prominent only during final elimination of infectious virus. Virus-specific ASC peaked in lymphoid organs before the CNS, suggesting peripheral B cell priming and maturation. Following elimination of infectious virus, virus-specific ASC continued to increase within the CNS and then remained stable during persistence, in contrast to declining T cell numbers. These data comprise three novel findings. Rapid recruitment of B cells in the absence of specific Ab secretion supports a potential Ab-independent effector function involving lysis of virus-infected cells. Delayed recruitment relative to viral clearance and subsequent maintenance of a stable CNS ASC population demonstrate differential regulation of T and B lymphocytes within the infected CNS. This supports a critical role of humoral immunity in regulating viral CNS persistence. Lastly, altered antiviral ASC specificities following clearance of infectious virus suggest ongoing recruitment of peripheral memory cells and/or local B cell differentiation.