"And DPSIR begat DAPSI(W)R(M)!" - A unifying framework for marine environmental management.

The marine environment is a complex system formed by interactions between ecological structure and functioning, physico-chemical processes and socio-economic systems. An increase in competing marine uses and users requires a holistic approach to marine management which considers the environmental, economic and societal impacts of all activities. If managed sustainably, the marine environment will deliver a range of ecosystem services which lead to benefits for society. In order to understand the complexity of the system, the DPSIR (Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response) approach has long been a valuable problem-structuring framework used to assess the causes, consequences and responses to change in a holistic way. Despite DPSIR being used for a long time, there is still confusion over the definition of its terms and so to be appropriate for current marine management, we contend that this confusion needs to be addressed. Our viewpoint advocates that DPSIR should be extended to DAPSI(W)R(M) (pronounced dap-see-worm) in which Drivers of basic human needs require Activities which lead to Pressures. The Pressures are the mechanisms of State change on the natural system which then leads to Impacts (on human Welfare). Those then require Responses (as Measures). Furthermore, because of the complexity of any managed sea area in terms of multiple Activities, there is the need for a linked-DAPSI(W)R(M) framework, and then the connectivity between marine ecosystems and ecosystems in the catchment and further at sea, requires an interlinked, nested-DAPSI(W)R(M) framework to reflect the continuum between adjacent ecosystems. Finally, the unifying framework for integrated marine management is completed by encompassing ecosystem structure and functioning, ecosystem services and societal benefits. Hence, DAPSI(W)R(M) links the socio-ecological system of the effects of changes to the natural system on the human uses and benefits of the marine system. However, to deliver these sustainably in the light of human activities requires a Risk Assessment and Risk Management framework; the ISO-compliant Bow-Tie method is used here as an example. Finally, to secure ecosystem health and economic benefits such as Blue Growth, successful, adaptive and sustainable marine management Responses (as Measures) are delivered using the 10-tenets, a set of facets covering all management disciplines and approaches.

Coastal Zone Ecosystem Services: from science to values and decision making; a case study.

This research is concerned with the following environmental research questions: socio-ecological system complexity, especially when valuing ecosystem services; ecosystems stock and services flow sustainability and valuation; the incorporation of scale issues when valuing ecosystem services; and the integration of knowledge from diverse disciplines for governance and decision making. In this case study, we focused on ecosystem services that can be jointly supplied but independently valued in economic terms: healthy climate (via carbon sequestration and storage), food (via fisheries production in nursery grounds), and nature recreation (nature watching and enjoyment). We also explored the issue of ecosystem stock and services flow, and we provide recommendations on how to value stock and flows of ecosystem services via accounting and economic values respectively. We considered broadly comparable estuarine systems located on the English North Sea coast: the Blackwater estuary and the Humber estuary. In the past, these two estuaries have undergone major land-claim. Managed realignment is a policy through which previously claimed intertidal habitats are recreated allowing the enhancement of the ecosystem services provided by saltmarshes. In this context, we investigated ecosystem service values, through biophysical estimates and welfare value estimates. Using an optimistic (extended conservation of coastal ecosystems) and a pessimistic (loss of coastal ecosystems because of, for example, European policy reversal) scenario, we find that context dependency, and hence value transfer possibilities, vary among ecosystem services and benefits. As a result, careful consideration in the use and application of value transfer, both in biophysical estimates and welfare value estimates, is advocated to supply reliable information for policy making.

Valuing the European 'coastal blue carbon' storage benefit.

'Blue' carbon ecosystems are important carbon storage providers that are currently not protected by any international mechanism, such as REDD. This study aims to contribute to raising awareness in the political domain about the 'blue' carbon issue. This analysis also provides guidance in terms of how to value stock and flows of ecosystem services adding to the debate begun by the Costanza et al. (1997) paper in Nature. Through scenario analysis we assess how human welfare benefits will be affected by changes in the European coastal blue carbon stock provision. The current extent of European coastal blue carbon has an accounting stock value of about US$180 million. If EU Environmental Protection Directives continue to be implemented and effectively enforced, society will gain an appreciating asset over time. However, a future policy reversal resulting in extensive ecosystem loss could mean economic value losses as high as US$1 billion by 2060.

Biogeochemical value of managed realignment, Humber estuary, UK.

We outline a plausible, albeit extreme, managed realignment scenario ('Extended Deep Green' scenario) for a large UK estuary to demonstrate the maximum possible biogeochemical effects and economic outcomes of estuarine management decisions. Our interdisciplinary approach aims to better inform the policy process, by combining biogeochemical and socioeconomic components of managed realignment schemes. Adding 7494 ha of new intertidal area to the UK Humber estuary through managed realignment leads to the annual accumulation of a 1.2 x 10(5) t of 'new' sediment and increases the current annual sink of organic C and N, and particle reactive P in the estuary by 150%, 83% and 50%, respectively. The increase in intertidal area should also increase denitrification. However, this positive outcome is offset by the negative effect of enhanced greenhouse gas emissions in new marshes in the low salinity region of the estuary. Short-term microbial reactions decrease the potential benefits of CO(2) sequestration through gross organic carbon burial by at least 50%. Net carbon storage is thus most effective where oxidation and denitrification reactions are reduced. In the Humber this translates to wet, saline marshes at the seaward end of estuaries. Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) was used to determine the economic efficiency of the Extended Deep Green managed realignment. When compared to a 'Hold-the-Line' future scenario, i.e. the present state/extent of sea defences in the estuary, the CBA shows that managed realignment is cost effective when viewed on >25 year timescales. This is because capital costs are incurred in the first years, whereas the benefits from habitat creation, carbon sequestration and reduced maintenance costs build up over time. Over 50- and 100-year timescales, the Extended Deep Green managed realignment scenario is superior in efficiency terms. The increased sediment accumulation is also likely to enhance storage of contaminant metals. In the case of Cu, a metal that currently causes significant water quality issues, Cu removal due to burial of suspended sediment in realigned areas translates to a value of approximately pounds sterling 1000 a(-1) (avoided clean up costs). Although this is not formally included in the CBA it illustrates another likely positive economic outcome of managed realignment. Although we focus on the Humber, the history of reclamation and its biogeochemistry is common to many estuaries in northern Europe.

Public perceptions of health risks from polluted coastal bathing waters: a mixed methodological analysis using cultural theory.

This article explores public perceptions of, and attitudes toward, possible health risks from polluted coastal bathing waters in the United Kingdom. Cultural theory is applied in the present analysis, using a mixed methodology of quantitative analysis from interviews and qualitative interpretation of focus group discussions to provide insights into how different cultural solidarities view a number of issues. These include risks to health; attitudes toward regulation; public consultation and information provision; and trust, blame, and accountability applied to different stakeholders in the bathing-water-quality debate. The results show that individuals' standpoints can be represented on a number of dimensions, consistent with cultural theory, including perceptions of power and authority, beliefs in the efficacy of collective action, and acceptance or rejection of incremental change as opposed to radical solutions. The discussion focuses both on methodological and substantive issues related to the use of cultural theory as a research tool, and on policy recommendations arising from this research.

Dog liver 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase.

A rapid and sensitive assay method for 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMG-coA reductase, EC 1.1.1.34) is described. HMG-coA reductase is demonstrated in dog liver microsomes, and the converted reaction product has been identified as mevalonolactone. The enzyme activity undergoes cyclic variation and increases by more than tenfold 5 h after feeding. The properties of dog liver enzyme are generally similar to the rat liver enzyme in the method of solubilization, cold inactivation, pH optimum, and Km values.