Ratio de sexo en la descendencia de futbolistas profesionales: estudio preliminar / Sex ratio in the offspring of professional soccer players: preliminary study / Proporção sexual em filhos de jogadores profissionais de futebol: estudo preliminar

OBJETIVO: Analizar si el entrenamiento de alta carga de los deportistas masculinos de élite puede influir en la proporción de sexo de sus descendientes. MÉTODO: Diseño observacional, descriptivo y transversal. Participaron 15 futbolistas, siendo condición necesaria que en el momento del estudio se encontrasen deportivamente activos, sin problemas de fertilidad y con descendencia. Las variables de estudio fueron el sexo de la descendencia, el número de hijos y el orden de nacimiento, y cargas de volumen e intensidad. El análisis estadístico consistió en relacionar las variables de carga, volumen e intensidad de ejercicio físico, con el sexo de los hijos, a través de la prueba de Ji cuadrado, teniendo en cuenta un nivel de significación p < 0.05. RESULTADOS: La descendencia fue de 28 hijos (13 niños, 15 niñas). El análisis de volumen e intensidad no reflejó diferencias significativas en la proporción niño/niña (p = 0.935; p = 0.296 respectivamente). En cambio, dentro de la población de niñas nacidas se observaron más nacimientos como consecuencia del entrenamiento de alta intensidad (p = 0.037). CONCLUSIONES: Este es el primer artículo hasta la fecha que evalúa la influencia del ejercicio físico de alta carga sobre el sexo de la descendencia de varones deportistas. Pese a que el número de niñas no ha sido significativamente mayor al de niños, se observa mayor número de niñas nacidas cuando el entrenamiento es de alta intensidad

OBJECTIVE: To analyze whether the high load training of elite male athletes can influence the sex ratio of their offspring. METHOD: Observational, descriptive cross-sectional study. Fifteen male soccer players participated from the study according to the following criteria at the time of the study: being engaged in sports practice and competition, no fertility issues and live offspring. The study variables were the sex of the offspring, the number of children and the order of birth, and volume and intensity loads. The statistical analysis consisted in relating the variables of volume and intensity load with frequency tables by means of the Chi square test, with margin of error p <0.05. RESULTS: The offspring was 28 children (13 boys, 15 girls). Volume and intensity analysis did not show significant differences in the boy/girl ratio (p = 0.935, p = 0.296 respectively). In contrast, within the population of girls, more births were observed as a consequence of high intensity training (p = 0.037). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first article to date that assesses the influence of high-load physical exercise on the sex of the offspring of male athletes. Although the number of girls has not been significantly greater than that of boys, there is a greater number of girls born when the training is of high intensity

OBJETIVO: Analisar se o treinamento de alta carga de atletas de elite do sexo masculino pode influenciar na proporção sexual de seus descendentes. MÉTODO: Estudo observacional, transversal e descritivo. Quinze jogadores de futebol do sexo masculino participaram do estudo de acordo com os seguintes critérios na época do estudo: estar envolvido na prática de esportes e competição, sem problemas de fertilidade e prole viva. As variáveis de estudo foram o sexo da prole, o número de filhos e a ordem de nascimento e as cargas de volume e intensidade. A análise estatística consistiu em relacionar as variáveis de volume e intensidade da carga com tabelas de frequência por meio do teste Qui-quadrado, com margem de erro p <0,05. RESULTADOS: A prole foi de 28 crianças (13 meninos e 15 meninas). A análise de volume e intensidade não mostrou diferenças significativas na relação menino / menina (p = 0,935, p = 0,296 respectivamente). Por outro lado, na população de meninas, mais nascimentos foram observados como consequência do treinamento de alta intensidade (p = 0,037). CONCLUSÕES: Este é o primeiro artigo até o momento que avalia a influência do exercício físico de alta carga sobre o sexo de filhos de atletas do sexo masculino. Embora o número de meninas não tenha sido significativamente maior que o de meninos, há um maior número de meninas nascidas quando o treinamento é de alta intensidade

Birth sex ratio in the offspring of professional male soccer players: influence of exercise training load.

STUDY QUESTION: Can the exercise training load of elite male athletes influence the sex ratio of their offspring? SUMMARY ANSWER: This is the first study assessing the influence of exercise training load on the offspring sex ratio of children from male professional athletes, observing a bias toward more females being born as a result of both high-intensity and high-volume loads, with intensity having the greatest effect. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: There is a relatively constant population sex ratio of males to females among various species; however, certain events and circumstances may alter this population sex ratio favoring one sex over the other. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: Observational, descriptive cross-sectional study with a duration of 3 months. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: Seventy-five male professional soccer players from First Division soccer teams. Offspring variables were sex of the offspring, number of children and order of birth. Exercise training variables were volume and intensity. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: Total offspring was 122 children (52 males (42.6%), 70 females (57.4%)). Analysis revealed that increase in either the volume (P < 0.001) or intensity (P < 0.001) of training by the players shifted the birth offspring ratio more toward females. Within the sample of females born, more births (i.e. number) were observed as a consequence of training at the highest intensity (45 out of 70; P < 0.001), no such pattern occurred within males (P > 0.05). When female versus male births were compared within each intensity, only the high-intensity comparison was significant (45 (75%) females vs 15 (25%) males, P < 0.001). LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: While this is the first study assessing differences in the sex ratio of the offspring of male athletes (i.e. soccer players), we acknowledge there are limitations and confounders within our approach; e.g. small sample size, ethnic background and variations in the timing of intercourse relative to ovulation as well as in sex hormone levels. As such, we propose that future research is needed to confirm or refute our findings. It is recommended that such work expand on the measurements obtained and conduct direct assessment of sperm characteristics. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: The findings of the study support the fact that different stressors on the body may alter the sex of the offspring. While in the present study the stressor is the excessive training load of soccer players, other events may lead to similar results. The bias in offspring sex ratio may have important implications for demography and population dynamics, as well as genetic trait inheritance. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S): There is no funding nor competing interests. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: N/A.

Sperm DNA fragmentation as a result of ultra-endurance exercise training in male athletes.

Intensive sports practice seems to exert negative effects on semen parameters; in order to assess these effects, the objective of this study was to assess semen, including DNA fragmentation, and hormone parameters in elite triathletes. Twelve high-level triathletes preparing for a National Triathlon Championship participated in the study. The qualitative sperm parameters analysed were volume, sperm count, motility, morphology and DNA fragmentation; when needed, additional testing was performed. Assessed hormones were testosterone (T), cortisol (C) and testosterone-cortisol ratio (T/C). Maximum oxygen consumption and training characteristics were also assessed. Hormonal values and physical semen parameters were within normal ranges. DNA fragmentation showed high values (20.4 ± 6.1%). Round cells in semen were higher than normal (2.8 ± 1.5 million/ml), with the presence of macrophages. Correlations were found for several parameters: concentration of round cells positively correlated with progressive sperm motility (p = .01) and sperm morphology (p = .02); contrarily, the correlation found with DNA fragmentation was negative (p = .04). Sperm DNA fragmentation and the T/C ratio, however, were correlated in a positive manner (p = .03). As evidenced by the observed results, sperm DNA fragmentation is affected by high-level sports practice; therefore, high loads of endurance training could potentially interfere with the athlete's fertility potential.

Impact of physical activity and exercise on male reproductive potential: a new assessment questionnaire / Impacto de la actividad física y el ejercicio sobre el potencial reproductivo masculino: nuevo cuestionario de evaluación / Impacto da atividade física e do exercício sobre o potencial reprodutivo masculino: novo questionário de avaliação

Male athletes in general are subjected to the same causes of infertility as the general population, but sports practice itself may be possibly an additional infertility factor or, at least an aggravating factor for a previously existing fertility condition; on the contrary, being physically active has been hypothesized to favor hormonal and seminological processes and could be beneficial for fertility. In this relationship, the different inherent parameters of physical activity-exercise (training volume, intensity, objective, organization and frequency) are of paramount importance. Therefore, this review discusses both the negative and positive impact of physical exercise on the male reproductive potential. Clear knowledge is lacking on this topic as incongruences exist due to the fact that studies lack standardization in assessment tools or research protocols. So that future studies can reveal more information regarding exercising male fertility, we introduce a unique questionnaire developed with the intent to help standardize future studies on male fertility and exercise (AU)

Los atletas masculinos presentan, generalmente, las mismas causas de infertilidad que la población general; no obstante, la práctica deportiva puede ser, por sí misma, un factor de infertilidad o un factor agravante en el caso de un problema previo de fertilidad; por otra parte, se ha sugerido recientemente que ser físicamente activo puede favorecer el entorno hormonal y seminológico y, por ende, ser beneficioso para la fertilidad. En esta relación, los distintos parámetros inherentes relacionados a la actividad física y al ejercicio (volumen, intensidad, objetivo, organización y frecuencia) son de suprema importancia. Esta revisión versa sobre el impacto, tanto negativo como positivo, del ejercicio físico sobre el potencial reproductivo masculino. No existe un conocimiento consensuado sobre este tópico debido a incongruencias derivadas del hecho de que los estudios carecen de estandarización en las herramientas de evaluación y/o los protocolos de investigación. Con la finalidad de que estudios futuros puedan revelar más información sobre la fertilidad en los hombres que practican ejercicio físico, presentamos un cuestionario único desarrollado con el objetivo de ayudar a estandarizar estudios futuros que versen sobre fertilidad masculina y ejercicio (AU)

Atletas do sexo masculino geralmente têm as mesmas causas de infertilidade que a população em geral; contudo, o desporto em si pode ser um fator de infertilidade ou um fator agravante no caso de problema de fertilidade anterior. Além disso, recentemente, tem sido sugerido para ser fisicamente ativo pois pode promover melhoras no ambiente seminológico e hormonal e, portanto, ser benéfico para a fertilidade. Neste sentido, os diversos parâmetros inerentes relacionados à atividade física e exercício físico (volume, intensidade, finalidade, organização e frequência) são de suma importância. Este artigo trata do impacto, tanto positivo como negativo, do exercício físico sobre o potencial reprodutivo masculino. Não há conhecimento consensual sobre este tema, por causa de inconsistências decorrentes do fato de que os estudos carecem de padronização em ferramentas de avaliação e/ou protocolos de pesquisa. A fim de que estudos futuros possam revelar mais informações sobre a fertilidade em homens que praticam exercício, apresentamos um questionário desenvolvido para ajudar a padronizar os estudos futuros que lidam com a fertilidade masculina e o exercício (AU)

Impact of physical activity and exercise on male reproductive potential: a new assessment questionnaire.

Male athletes in general are subjected to the same causes of infertility as the general population, but sports practice itself may be possibly an additional infertility factor or, at least an aggravating factor for a previously existing fertility condition; on the contrary, being physically active has been hypothesized to favor hormonal and seminological processes and could be beneficial for fertility. In this relationship, the different inherent parameters of physical activity-exercise (training volume, intensity, objective, organization and frequency) are of paramount importance. Therefore, this review discusses both the negative and positive impact of physical exercise on the male reproductive potential. Clear knowledge is lacking on this topic as incongruences exist due to the fact that studies lack standardization in assessment tools or research protocols. So that future studies can reveal more information regarding exercising male fertility, we introduce a unique questionnaire developed with the intent to help standardize future studies on male fertility and exercise.

Assessment of the effect of prolonged forced swimming on CD-1 mice sperm morphology with and without antioxidant supplementation.

As physical exercise has been shown to negatively affect sperm morphology, this study was undertaken to assess the effect of a 3-min forced swimming protocol during 50 days, with and without administration of antioxidants [N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and trans-resveratrol], on sperm morphology in CD-1 mice. Forty-four 13-week-old CD-1 mice were randomly allocated to four different groups: mice not submitted to exercise, control group (CG), mice submitted to swimming without administration of antioxidants (EX), mice submitted to swimming that received trans-resveratrol supplementation [exercise group (EX)+Resv] and mice submitted to swimming exercise that received NAC supplementation (EX+NAC). The EX showed 30.5% of spermatozoa with normal morphology, showing significant differences with regard to the CG, which showed 58.5%. The groups receiving antioxidant supplements showed significantly higher percentages of spermatozoa with normal morphology in comparison with the EX group (EX+Resv: 64.1%, EX+NAC: 48.2%). The imposed model of forced swimming caused alterations in sperm morphology. The antioxidants employed seem to be suitable antioxidants for avoiding exercise-associated sperm morphology anomalies in prolonged forced swimming exercise. Trans-resveratrol has proven to be more efficient for this purpose.

Findings on sperm alterations and DNA fragmentation, nutritional, hormonal and antioxidant status in an elite triathlete. Case report / Hallazgo de alteraciones en semen, nutricionales, hormonales, del estado antioxidante y fragmentación de ADN en un triatleta de élite. Caso clínico / Descoberta das alterações no sêmen, nutricionais, hormonais, o antioxidante status e fragmentação de DNA em triatleta de elite. Relato do caso

Objective. The present case study analyzes semen quality, nutritional patterns, and hormonal and oxidative status of an international high-level triathlete with a low-volume, high-intensity training load. Method. The athlete was 26 years old, having participated in competitions since he was 13 years old, and practiced professional triathlon for the last five years. The qualitative sperm parameters analyzed were volume, sperm count, motility, morphology, and DNA fragmentation (additional testing performed as needed). Salivary hormones measured were T, C, and T/C. Seminal plasma total antioxidant capacity was measured. Maximum oxygen consumption and training characteristics were assessed. To determine habitual food intake and its possible repercussion on oxidative status, a quali-quantitative frequency questionnaire of 136 different foods was used and subsequently analyzed using specific software. Results. Hormonal and physical semen parameters were within normal ranges. Sperm morphology and DNA fragmentation showed abnormal values (3.9% and 38.33%). Round cells in semen were higher than normal (2.3 million/ml), with presence of macrophages. Apoptotic and necrotic events were observed. Total antioxidant capacity, although not compromised, was low. Dietetic intake was characterized by excess protein and appropriate overall antioxidant intake (with slight deficit and excess of some specific nutrients) according to recommended values. Conclusions. In this high-intensity endurance athlete, sperm parameters, mainly sperm morphology and DNA fragmentation, are altered. Further knowledge is needed with regards nutritional antioxidant intake and other dietetic strategies oriented toward avoiding oxidative damage in semen of high-performance triathletes. Moreover, adequate nutritional strategies must be found and nutritional advice given to athletes so as to palliate or dampen the effects of exercise on semen quality (AU)

Objetivo. El presente estudio de caso analiza la calidad de semen, patrones nutricionales y status hormonal y oxidativo de un triatleta internacional de alto nivel con carga de entrenamiento de bajo volumen y alta intensidad. Método. Atleta de 26 años de edad, con una práctica deportiva competitiva desde los 13 años, y cinco años de triatlón profesional. Los parámetros cualitativos analizados en semen fueron: volumen, contaje espermático, motilidad, morfología, y fragmentación de ADN, con pruebas adicionales según necesidad. Las hormonas salivares cuantificadas fueron: T, C, y T/C. La capacidad antioxidante total fue medida en plasma seminal. También se analizó el consumo máximo de oxígeno y características de entrenamiento. Para determinar la ingesta alimentaria habitual y su posible repercusión sobre el estado oxidativo, se utilizó un cuestionario de frecuencia de consumo cuali-cuantitativa, de 136 alimentos, analizado mediante software informático. Resultados. Los valores hormonales y parámetros físicos seminales estaban dentro de la normalidad. La morfología y fragmentación de ADN espermático mostraron valores anormales (3.9% y 38.33%). Aparecía un elevado número de células redondas (2.3 millones/mL), con presencia de macrófagos. Se observaron eventos apoptóticos y necróticos. La capacidad antioxidante total, aunque no alterada, estaba baja. La ingesta dietética se caracterizó por un exceso proteico y consumo adecuado de antioxidantes (con ligero déficit y exceso de algunos nutrientes específicos), según valores recomendados. Conclusiones. El ejercicio de resistencia de alta intensidad altera los parámetros espermáticos, principalmente morfología y fragmentación de ADN. Es necesario obtener mayor información sobre el efecto de antioxidantes y otras estrategias dietéticas con relación al daño oxidativo en el semen de triatletas de alto rendimiento, al igual que hallar estrategias nutricionales adecuadas para paliar o amortiguar los efectos del ejercicio sobre la calidad del semen (AU)

Objetivo: O presente estudo de caso analisa a qualidade de sêmen, padrões nutricionais, estado hormonal e oxidativo de um triatleta internacional de alto nível com carga de treinamento de baixo volume e alta intensidade. Método: Atleta de 26 anos de idade, com uma pratica esportiva desde os 13 anos e cinco anos de triátlon profissional. Os parâmetros qualitativos analisados no sêmen foram: volume, contagem espermática, motilidade, morfologia, e fragmentação de DNA com testes adicionais dada necessidade. Os testes hormonais salivares foram: Testosterona, Cortisol e a razão testosterona/cortisol. A capacidade antioxidante total foi medida no plasma seminal. Também foi analisado o consumo máximo de oxigênio e características do treinamento. Para determinar a ingesta alimentar habitual e sua possível repercussão sobre o estado oxidativo, foi utilizado um questionário de frequência de consumo quali-quantitativo de 136 alimentos, a partir do uso de um software especifico. Resultados: os valores e parâmetros hormonais e físicos seminais estavam dentro da normalidade. A morfologia e fragmentação do DNA espermático mostraram valores anormais (3,9% e 38,33%). Apresentando um elevado número de células redondas (2,3 milhoes/mL), com presença de macrófagos. Se observaram eventos apoptóticos e necróticos. A capacidade antioxidante total, ainda que não alterada, estava baixa. A ingesta dietética foi caracterizada por um excesso proteico e consumo adequado de antioxidantes (com ligeiro déficit excesso de alguns nutrientes específicos) segundo valores recomendados. Conclusões: o exercício de resistência de alta intensidade altera os parâmetros espermáticos, principalmente morfologia e fragmentação do DNA. Faz-se necessário obter maiores informações sobre o efeito de antioxidantes e outras estratégias dietéticas com relação ao dano oxidativo no sêmen de triatletas de alto rendimento, e traçar estratégias nutricionais adequadas para atenuar os efeitos do exercício sobre a qualidade do sêmen

Evaluación de la respuesta muscular como herramienta de control en el campo de la actividad física, la salud y el deporte / Assessment of muscle response as a control tool in the area of physical activity, health, and sports

La tensiomiografía es un método de evaluación muscular desarrollado en la década de los noventa en la Facultad de Ingeniería Eléctrica de la Universidad de Ljubliana (Eslovenia), bajo la dirección de Vojko Valenèiè. Mide la deformación radial de un músculo cuando este es estimulado eléctricamente. La magnitud de estos cambios y el tiempo en el que se producen nos permiten obtener información sobre las características mecánicas y la capacidad contráctil de los músculos superficiales evaluados. El objetivo de este trabajo es hacer una revisión actualizada de la producción científica publicada y revisar los procedimientos metodológicos para su correcta aplicación e interpretación, aportando algunas reflexiones y propuestas que ayuden a sus usuarios y amplíe la información disponible hasta el momento(AU)

Tensiomiography is a muscle assessment method developed in the nineties in the School of Electric Engineering of the University of Ljubliana (Slovenia) by Vojko Valenèiè. It is based on measuring muscle radial displacement when muscle is electrically stimulated. The magnitude of the changes, and the time during which these changes take place allows the researcher to obtain information on mechanical characteristics and the contractile capacity of the superficial muscles assessed. The present study aims at presenting an updated revision on the published scientific articles, while offering at the same time valuable thoughts and proposals that may help researchers in the field and increase the present available information(AU)

The limitations of scaling laws in the prediction of performance in endurance events.

In the twentieth century, scientists have examined running speed over various distances, analyzing world records and studying the ability of an athlete to sustain a given speed. Assuming that running speed expresses the response of a non-linear multisystemic behavior, the relationship between these two variables (distance vs. velocity) can therefore be evaluated by applying scaling laws that fulfill the key principles of specificity and individuality of each athlete, yet responding to bioenergetic and functional patterns that are well-known to sports physiology. Since speed loss as distance increases exhibits fractal behavior, with small changes in the speed-reduction curve due to the effect of fatigue, it must be recognized that no universal scaling law can account, with acceptable precision, for the effect exerted by fatigue on potential speed at any given moment in a race. Power laws using a range of scaling exponents provide technical staff and athletes with a reliable, non-invasive tool for planning of training schedules, predicting athletes' performances over various distances and comparing the performance of specialists in different track events. The equations for the scaling laws for the distances investigated here were: V1500=15.00 × D⁻°·¹° (R²=0.99); V3000=12.76 × D⁻°·°8 (R²=0.99); V5000=11.55 × D⁻°·°7 (R²=0.99); V10,000=11.59 × D⁻°·°7 (R²=0.99); V21,095=10.78 × D⁻°·°6 (R²=0.97); V42,175=10.27 × D⁻°·°57 (R²=0.99).

Follicular-fluid anti-Müllerian hormone concentration is similar in patients with endometriosis compared with non-endometriotic patients.

This cross-sectional prospective study assessed follicular-fluid anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) concentrations in infertile patients with mild/minimal endometriosis during natural IVF. Thirty-two women participated in the study. Patients were divided into two groups: tubal obstruction without endometriosis (control group) and minimal/mild endometriosis (study group). All patients underwent laparoscopy for assessment of infertility; at the same time, any foci of endometriosis found were cauterized. AMH concentration was measured in the follicular fluid of a single follicle when it achieved pre-ovulatory maturation by ultrasensitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Likewise, AMH, FSH and inhibin B content in serum was also measured. Age (30 ± 1.3 and 32 ± 0.8 years) and body mass index (22 ± 0.6 and 22 ± 0.5 kg/m(2)), day-3 antral follicle count (11.3 ± 1.7 and 10.7 ± 1.5), serum FSH concentrations (5.4 ± 0.6 and 5.0 ± 0.3 IU/ml) and follicular-fluid AMH concentrations (1.8 ± 0.3 and 1.5 ± 0.1 ng/ml, study and control group, respectively; mean difference 0.33, 95% CI -0.21 to 0.88) were similar in both groups. This study shows that infertile patients with minimal/mild endometriosis have a similar concentration of AMH in the follicular fluid after natural IVF as compared with control subjects.

Male powerlifting performance described from the viewpoint of complex systems.

This paper reflects on the factors that condition performance in powerlifting and proposes that the result-generating process is inadequately described by the allometric equations commonly used. We analysed the scores of 1812 lifters belonging to all body mass categories, and analysed the changes in the results achieved in each weight category and by each competitor. Current performance-predicting methods take into account biological variables, paying no heed to other competition features. Performance in male powerlifting (as in other strength sports) behaves as a self-organised system with non-linear interactions between its components. Thus, multiple internal and external elements must condition changes in a competitor's score, the most important being body mass, body size, the number of practitioners, and the concurrency of favourable factors in one individual. It was observed that each behaved in a specific form in the high level, according to the individuals' circumstances, which make up the main elements of the competitive system in every category. In powerlifting, official weight categories are generally organised in three different groups: light (<52.0 to <60 kg), medium (<67.5 to <90.0 kg) and heavy (<100 to >125 kg) lifter categories, each one of them with specific allometric exponents. The exponent should be revised periodically, especially with regard to the internal dynamics of the category, and adjusted according to possible changes affecting competition.

Reproductive profile of physically active men after exhaustive endurance exercise.

The purpose of this study on non-professional (recreational) athletes was two-fold: 1) to determine if endurance exercise (EE) routinely used by professional athletes would produce reproductive changes in the general population, and 2) to assess reversion. Short-term exhaustive endurance exercise (EEE) can produce alterations in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis with subsequent fertility changes. Sixteen healthy adult male volunteers were divided into experimental (8) and control (8) groups for the exercise period. A cycloergometer provided EEE for a period of 2 weeks. The experimental group exercised four times a week; controls were without EEE. The hormonal and seminological profiles of all subjects were evaluated. Two weeks of EEE produced hormonal and seminological values in the experimental group that were statistically different from their own pre-treatment values (FSH: 3.33 +/- 1.7; LH: 3.73 +/- 1.36; sperm concentration/ml: 42.50 +/- 29.46; type a velocity: 25.23 +/- 10.9; type d velocity: 46.18 +/- 15.81; % of normal forms: 10.42 +/- 1.97) as well as from the pre- and post-treatment control group values. The measured parameters almost returned to pre-treatment levels in the experimental group 2 - 3 days after EEE ended. From this study we concluded that when subjected to EEE, individuals drawn from a recreational exercising life style experienced changes similar to those observed in studies done with athletes, and short-term EEE induced a reversible alteration to the HPG axis.