Variation of short-lived beta radionuclide (radon progeny) concentrations and the mixing processes in the atmospheric boundary layer.

Radon is emitted to the atmosphere with quasi constant emission rates depending on the radium concentration in the earth's crust and soil physical properties. In this way, the 222Rn and 220Rn concentration in air reflects significantly the thickness of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). The aerosol-associated, beta-emitting progeny nuclides of 222Rn were measured daily in the framework of the atmospheric radioactivity monitoring program of NIMH at Sofia. The 214Pb concentration was estimated from the measured short-lived beta activity of 24-h filter samples, changed daily at 6:00 GMT. The impact of some meteorological factors such as wind direction, wind velocity, humidity, and temperature on short-lived beta radionuclides is estimated, and the results show no simple statistical relationship. A seasonal pattern was observed with winter minima and late summer-early autumn maxima. High variability in daily morning concentrations and mean monthly values was observed. There were well pronounced differences between years. The height of the convective ABL was estimated from daily radio-soundings at 12:00 GMT for the period 2001-2006 and from seven soundings per day during the experimental campaign in Sofia in October 2003. In general, concentrations of short-lived 222Rn progeny nuclides decreased with increased convective ABL height.

Reduction in drug-induced DNA double-strand breaks associated with beta1 integrin-mediated adhesion correlates with drug resistance in U937 cells.

We previously showed that adhesion of myeloma cells to fibronectin (FN) by means of beta1 integrins causes resistance to certain cytotoxic drugs. The study described here found that adhesion of U937 human histiocytic lymphoma cells to FN provides a survival advantage with respect to damage induced by the topoisomerase (topo) II inhibitors mitoxantrone, doxorubicin, and etoposide. Apoptosis induced by a topo II inhibitor is thought to be initiated by DNA damage. The neutral comet assay was used to determine whether initial drug-induced DNA damage correlated with cellular-adhesion-mediated drug resistance. Cellular adhesion by means of beta1 integrins resulted in a 40% to 60% reduction in mitoxantrone- and etoposide-induced DNA double-strand breaks. When the mechanisms regulating the initial drug-induced DNA damage were examined, a beta1 integrin-mediated reduction in drug-induced DNA double-strand breaks was found to correlate with reduced topo II activity and decreased salt-extractable nuclear topo IIbeta protein levels. Confocal studies showed changes in the nuclear localization of topo IIbeta; however, alterations in the nuclear-to-cytoplasmic ratio of topo IIbeta in FN-adhered cells were not significantly different. Furthermore, after a high level of salt extraction of nuclear proteins, higher levels of topo IIbeta-associated DNA binding were observed in FN-adhered cells than in cells in suspension. Together, these data suggest that topo IIbeta is more tightly bound to the nucleus of FN-adhered cells. Thus, FN adhesion by means of beta1 integrins appears to protect U937 cells from initial drug-induced DNA damage by reducing topo II activity secondarily to alterations in the nuclear distribution of topo IIbeta.

Intracellular induction of the Bartonella henselae virB operon by human endothelial cells.

One of the more recently identified bacterial exportation systems is the type IV secretion mechanism, which is characterized by a multiprotein complex that spans the inner and outer bacterial membranes and contains a pilin component. The most thoroughly studied type IV secretion system is encoded by the virB operon of Agrobacterium tumefaciens. In Bartonella henselae, 8 of the 10 virB operon genes share extensive homology and arrangement with the virB operon of A. tumefaciens. Sequencing of the region upstream of the B. henselae virB2 gene revealed a region with sequence homology to the vir box of A. tumefaciens. This possible promoter region was cloned upstream of the green fluorescent protein reporter gene in the promoterless vector pANT3 and used to transform B. henselae. Minimal reporter gene expression was seen in the transformed bacteria cultivated in the absence of host cells, but expression was strongly induced in intracellular bacteria cultivated with human microvascular endothelial cells. Deletion of an 87-bp fragment, which contained the putative vir box from the 5' end of the promoter region, diminished intracellular induction of the reporter gene. Host cell induction of the 17-kDa antigen gene, which replaces virB5 in B. henselae, was also demonstrated at the protein level using specific antiserum. Thus, expression of the virB genes of B. henselae is induced in bacteria, which have invaded host cells, through a mechanism that may be similar to the environment-sensing mechanism found in the virB operon of A. tumefaciens.

Histone deacetylase interacts directly with DNA topoisomerase II.

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) modify nucleosomal histones, have a key role in the regulation of gene transcription, and may be involved in cell-cycle regulation, differentiation and human cancer. Purified recombinant human HDAC1 protein was used to screen a cDNA expression library, and one of the clones identified encoded DNA topoisomerase II (Topo II), an enzyme known to have a role in transcriptional regulation and chromatin organization. Coimmunoprecipitation experiments indicate that HDAC1 and HDAC2 are associated with Topo II in vivo under normal physiological conditions. Complexes containing Topo II possess HDAC activities, and complexes containing HDAC1 or HDAC2 possess Topo II activities. HDAC and Topo II modify each other's activity in vitro and in vivo. Our results indicate the existence of a functionally coupled complex between these two enzymes and offer insights into the potential mechanisms of action of both enzymes.

Transcriptional activation of the htrA (High-temperature requirement A) gene from Bartonella henselae.

Bacterial htrA genes are typically activated as part of the periplasmic stress response and are dependent on the extracytoplasmic sigma factor rpoE. A putative promoter region, P1, of the sigma(E)-type heat-inducible promoters has previously been identified upstream of the htrA gene of Bartonella henselae. Further analysis of the htrA mRNA by primer extension demonstrated that transcription initiates from P1 and a second region downstream of P1. This second promoter region, termed P2, had no sequence identity to sigma(E)-type heat-inducible promoters. Promoter regions were cloned individually and in tandem into pANT3 upstream of a promoterless version of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene (gfpmut3) and transformed into B. henselae by electroporation. The contiguous promoter region containing both P1 and P2 were necessary for the optimal transcriptional activation of the htrA gene. Promoter activity at 37 degrees C was distinctively higher than at 27 degrees C. However, thermal induction at 47 degrees C did not increase expression of gfpmut3. Invasion of human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1) by B. henselae resulted in the formation of well-defined vacuoles containing clusters of bacteria exhibiting marked expression of gfpmut3 transcribed from the P1-P2 region. In addition, a moderate yet significant increase in the ratio of bacterial GFP to DNA was detected for intracellular bacteria compared to extracellular bacteria, indicating upregulation of htrA upon invasion of HMEC-1. The activation of specific genes in the intracellular environment may help us better understand the novel pathogenic mechanisms used by this bacterium.

The p20 gene product of Citrus tristeza virus accumulates in the amorphous inclusion bodies.

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) has 10 3' open reading frames (ORFs) of unknown function except for the two coat proteins. The highest produced subgenomic RNAs are those of the major coat protein gene (p25) and the 3' most genes, p20 and p23. The proteins from three ORFs, p25, p27, and p20, were examined in the yeast two-hybrid assay for the interactions between themselves and to one another. The p20 protein exhibited a high affinity for itself, suggesting that it might aggregate in infected cells. The cytopathology of CTV infections includes characteristic paracrystalline and amorphous inclusions in the phloem elements of infected citrus. Polyclonal antiserum raised against the bacterial expressed p20 gene product detected a protein of approximately 22-23 kDa, which accumulated to relatively high levels in CTV-infected citrus, but not in healthy citrus. Immunogold localization using antibodies to p20 protein showed strong and specific labeling of the amorphous inclusion bodies present in CTV-infected cells. Mesophyll protoplasts of Nicotiana benthamiana transfected with a CTV mutant containing the green fluorescent protein (GFP) ORF fused in-frame to the 3' end of p20 protein ORF expressed high levels of GFP. The fusion protein was concentrated in one specific area in the cytoplasm and lacked an organized shape. Accumulation of high levels of p20 protein in infected tissue, specific localization of the p20-GFP fusion protein, immunolocalization of p20 protein into amorphous inclusions, and strong homologous p20 protein-p20 protein interactions in the yeast-two-hybrid assay suggest that the p20 protein of CTV is a major component of the amorphous inclusion bodies present in CTV-infected cells.

Prolonged activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway is required for macrophage-like differentiation of a human myeloid leukemic cell line.

The role of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signal transduction pathway in the proliferation of mammalian cells has been well established. However, there are relatively few reports concerning cell differentiation being mediated by MAPK. The effect of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) on cell differentiation and signal transduction in a human myeloid leukemia cell line, TF-1a, was investigated. When TF-1a cells were treated with 10(-6), 10(-7), 10(-8), and 10(-9) M PMA for 24 h, they underwent 98, 93, 91, and 51% macrophage-like differentiation, respectively. PMA treatment rapidly (10 min) induced phosphorylation of MAPK kinase (MEK and p44/42 MAPK), which persisted for at least 24 h. p44/42 MAPK immunoprecipitates from lysates of PMA-treated cells had increased ability to phosphorylate the transcription factor Elk-1. This is important because phosphorylated Elk-1 can be considered an "end-product" of the MAPK pathway. In contrast, treatment of TF-1a cells with granulocyte/macrophage-colony stimulating factor induced only transient activation of MEK and p44/42 MAPK (10-20 min) and an increase (approximately 50%) in cell proliferation, without any change in cellular differentiation. These results suggest that macrophage-like differentiation may be dependent on prolonged activation of the MAPK pathway. Additional support for this conclusion was obtained from experiments showing that treatment of TF-1a cells with antisense oligonucleotides for MEK1 coding sequences prior to adding PMA inhibited macrophage-like differentiation. Furthermore, transient transfection with an inactive, dominant-negative MEK mutant also inhibited PMA-induced differentiation, whereas transient transfection with a plasmid coding for constitutively activated MEK led to macrophage-like differentiation in the absence of PMA.

Cell density-dependent VP-16 sensitivity of leukaemic cells is accompanied by the translocation of topoisomerase IIalpha from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.

The resistance of several leukaemic and myeloma cell lines (CCRF, L1210, HL-60, KG-1a and RPMI 8226) to VP-16 was found to increase with cell density and to be maximal (3.5- to 39-fold) in plateau phase cell cultures, as measured by clonogenic and MTT assays. Non-transformed confluent Flow 2000 human fibroblasts and Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells were also five- and 15-fold resistant to VP-16 respectively. The transition from log to plateau phase was accompanied by a drastic decrease in topoisomerase (topo) IIalpha content in CHO cells and human fibroblasts, while the leukaemic cells maintained constant cellular levels of topo IIalpha and topo IIbeta. However, the nuclear topo IIalpha content was found to decrease as a result of translocation of the enzyme to the cytoplasmic compartment in the leukaemic cells. This was confirmed by subcellular fractionation experiments, Western blotting analyses and immunocytochemistry studies. The quantity of topo IIalpha in plateau phase cytoplasmic fractions ranged from 18% in L1210 cells to 50% in HL-60 and 8226 cells, as measured by both immunoblotting and quantification of the label in immunofluorescent images. The cytoplasmic fraction from plateau phase cells retained topo II catalytic activity, as measured by the decatenation of kinetoplast DNA. The nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio of topo IIalpha may be critical in determining the sensitivity of leukaemic cells to topo II inhibitors. Cytoplasmic trafficking of topo IIalpha was observed in plasma cells obtained from patients with multiple myeloma, and perhaps contributes to drug resistance in this disease.

Effects of wild-type p53 expression on the quantity and activity of topoisomerase IIalpha and beta in various human cancer cell lines.

The p53 null HL-60 cell line was transfected with plasmids coding for either the wild-type p53 or mutant p53 gene. The stable expression of wild-type p53 resulted in a significant increase in sensitivity to the topoisomerase II poisons etoposide and doxorubicin, but not to the topoisomerase II inhibitors razoxane and ADR-529. HL-60 cells expressing wild-type p53 demonstrated 8- to 10-fold more VP-16 induced DNA breaks by the alkaline elution assay. The effect of inducible expression of wild-type p53 was also studied in the p53 null erythroblastoid cell line K562 and in the human squamous carcinoma cell line SqCC. The inducible expression of wild-type p53 in the K562 cell line resulted in a 3-fold increase in sensitivity to VP-16. The quantity of topoisomerase IIalpha was not altered by the transfection as determined by immunoblotting, while the amount of the beta isoform was increased 2.5-fold in HL-60 cells. The topo II catalytic activity present in nuclear extracts was measured as the decatenation of kinetoplast DNA, and found to be unaltered by p53 expression. Immunostaining for topoisomerase IIalpha was substantially diminished in both stable and inducible wild-type p53 expressing cells when three different antibodies were used (two polyclonal and one monoclonal). However, the addition of VP-16 resulted in a rapid appearance of nuclear fluorescence for topoisomerase IIalpha. No changes in topoisomerase IIbeta immunostaining were observed. These results suggest that an epitope for topoisomerase IIalpha is concealed in cells expressing wild-type p53 and that a complex between topoisomerase IIalpha and p53 may be disrupted by the addition of antitumor drugs.

Control of lytic function by mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular regulatory kinase 2 (ERK2) in a human natural killer cell line: identification of perforin and granzyme B mobilization by functional ERK2.

The signal pathways that control effector function in human natural killer (NK) cells are little known. In this study, we have identified the critical role of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway in NK lysis of tumor cells, and this pathway may involve the mobilization of granule components in NK cells upon interaction with sensitive tumor target cells. Evidence was provided by biological, biochemical, and gene transfection methods. NK cell binding to tumor cells for 5 min was sufficient to maximally activate MAPK/extracellular signal-regulatory kinase 2 (ERK2), demonstrated by its tyrosine phosphorylation and by its ability to function as an efficient kinase for myelin basic protein. MAPK activation was achieved in NK cells only after contact with NK-sensitive but not NK-resistant target cells. In immunocytochemical studies, cytoplasmic perforin and granzyme B were both maximally redirected towards the tumor contact zone within 5 min of NK cell contact with tumor cells. A specific MAPK pathway inhibitor, PD098059, could block not only MAPK activation but also redistribution of perforin/granzyme B in NK cells, which occur upon target ligation. PD098059 also interfered with NK lysis of tumor cells in a 5-h 51Cr-release assay, but had no ability to block NK cell proliferation. Transient transfection studies with wild-type and dominant-negative MAPK/ERK2 genes confirmed the importance of MAPK in NK cell lysis. These results document a pivotal role of MAPK in NK effector function, possibly by its control of movement of lytic granules, and clearly define MAPK involvement in a functional pathway unlinked to cell growth or differentiation.

Drug resistance to DNA topoisomerase I and II inhibitors in human leukemia, lymphoma, and multiple myeloma.

Several antineoplastic agents used in the treatment of hematologic malignancies exert their cytotoxic effects by inhibiting the activity of nuclear DNA topoisomerase (topo) I or II. Mechanisms of drug resistance to topoisomerase inhibitors have been defined at the molecular level from in vitro studies using model cell lines, and include quantitative and qualitative changes in topo I and II. The possible roles of these mechanisms in clinical drug resistance and clinical outcomes for patients with hematologic malignancies are now under investigation. Available data indicate that the blast content of topo II does not correlate with clinical outcome in acute myeloid leukemia (AML), and this may also be true in acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL). Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells are resistant to topo II inhibitors because they express low levels of topo II. Further studies using sequential biopsy samples and assays of topoisomerase activity should establish the role that changes in topo I and II activity play in the development of drug resistance in hematologic malignancies.

Quantitative immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy of the topoisomerase II alpha associated with nuclear matrices from wild-type and drug-resistant chinese hamster ovary cell lines.

Topo II alpha is considered an important constituent of the nuclear matrix, serving as a fastener of DNA loops to the underlying filamentous scaffolding network. To further define a mechanism of drug resistance to topo II poisons, we studied the quantity of topo II alpha associated with the nuclear matrix in drug-resistant SMR16 and parental cells in the presence and absence of VP-16. Nuclear matrices were prepared from nuclei isolated in EDTA buffer, followed by nuclease digestion with DNase II in the absence of RNase treatment and extraction with 2 M NaCl. Whole-mount spreading of residual structures permits, by means of isoform-specific antibody and colloidal-gold secondary antibodies, an estimate of the amount of topo II alpha in individual nuclear matrices. There are significant variations in topo II alpha amounts between individual nuclear matrices due to the cell cycle distribution. The parental cell line contained eight to ten times more nuclear matrix-associated topo II alpha than the resistant cell line matrices. Nuclear matrix-associated topo II alpha from wild-type and resistant cell lines correlated well with the immunofluorescent staining of the enzyme in nuclei of intact cells. The amount of DNA associated with residual nuclear structures was five times greater in the resistant cell line. This quantity of DNA was not proportional to the quantity of topo II alpha in the same matrix; in fact they were inversely related. In situ whole-mount nuclear matrix preparations were obtained from cells grown on grids and confirmed the results from labeling of isolated residual structures.

Electron microscopic data for the presence of post-meiotic gene expression in isolated ram sperm chromatin.

A whole mount electron microscopic technique facilitated a direct visualization of transcripts in ram spermatozoa in run-on experiments. The localization of transcripts in sperm chromatin by spreading enabled identification of regions where transcription complexes, presumably pre-mRNA species, were seen related to chromatin. In another series of experiments the localization of polymerase II was demonstrated using a specific antibody against the conservative tail domain of the polymerase II molecule, followed by protein A-gold visualization on spread chromatin and on thin sections from mature spermatozoa. Incorporation of bio-UTP in transcripts was visualized by streptavidin-gold on spreading and on thin sections. The data suggest that transcription occurs at the periphery of the mature spermatozoa.

Electron microscopic demonstration of transcription of ram sperm chromatin.

Transcription of ram sperm chromatin was examined by two electron microscopic techniques, namely spreading and thin sections. Labelling by Streptavidin-gold particles permits identification of transcription complexes, that have previously incorporated biotinylated uridine triphosphate. This supports previous electron microscopic data for randomly distributed transcription complexes and the presence of polymerase II molecules, documented by means of specific antibody using immunoelectron microscopy. Labelling of transcripts with biotin permits exact visualization of the transcription process, as well as identification of regions, where transcription occurs.

Association of actin with DNA and nuclear matrix from Guerin ascites tumour cells.

The protein composition of nuclear matrices containing different amount of DNA was examined. It was found that, in matrices containing 2% to 80% of total DNA, the quantity of DNA-bound proteins remains relatively constant varying from 10% to 15% of total nuclear proteins. Electrophoretic patterns do not differ substantially, but autoradiograms with in vitro 125I labelled proteins show quantitative variations in the actin content. Application of radioimmunoassay (RIA) enabled to determine the exact content of actin in GAT nuclei and nuclear matrices - 5 micrograms/ml in nuclei, of which 50% are bound to DNA and 30% being a component of the protein part of the nuclear matrix. These results are supported by electron microscopic data, where immunogold technique was performed on thin sections and spread material. The applied methods suggest that part of the nuclear actin is tightly bound (resistant to 2 M NaCl) to DNA and represents a component of the internal nuclear matrix.