A comprehensive urban programme to reduce energy poverty and its effects on health and wellbeing of citizens in six European countries: study protocol of a controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Nearly 11% of the European population is affected by energy poverty. Energy poverty is defined by the European Commission (2016) as the inability to afford basic energy services to guarantee a decent standard of living. Energy poverty is considered a complex, multidimensional problem that affects environment, housing, urban development, and health. Living in energy poverty conditions is associated with poorer human health and wellbeing. Hence, the WELLBASED intervention programme aims to design, implement and evaluate a comprehensive urban programme, based on the social-ecological model, to reduce energy poverty and its effects on the citizens' health and wellbeing in six European urban study sites: Valencia, Spain; Heerlen, The Netherlands; Leeds, United Kingdom; Edirne, Turkey; Obuda, Hungary, and; Jelgava, Latvia. METHODS: A controlled trial is performed. A total of 875 participants are recruited (125-177 per study site) to receive the WELLBASED intervention programme for 12 months (intervention condition) and 875 participants act as controls (control condition). Data will be collected with a baseline measurement at inclusion (T0), and follow-up measurements after 6 months (T1), 12 months (T2), and 18 months (T3). In both study arms, effects of the WELLBASED intervention programme are measured: health-related quality of life (HR-QoL), mental health, frailty in older adults, self-perceived health, chronic conditions, and care utilization. At the same time points, household expenditure on energy and energy consumption are obtained. In the intervention arm, health-monitoring data (i.e. peak flow, oxygen saturation, blood pressure, and heart rate) are obtained monthly and sleep quality with a three-month interval. Household data with regard to temperature, humidity and air quality are collected near real-time by home sensors. Qualitative interviews are conducted in each study site to evaluate the impacts of the WELLBASED intervention programme and to help explain findings. DISCUSSION: The WELLBASED intervention programme will provide new insights into the effectiveness of a comprehensive urban programme to tackle energy poverty and its effects on health and wellbeing across Europe. Hence, this study can contribute to European-wide replicable solutions for policy-makers and city practitioners to alleviate energy poverty. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN registry number is ISRCTN14905838 . Date of registration is 15/02/2022.

The role of amorphous precursors in the crystallization of La and Nd carbonates.

Crystalline La and Nd carbonates can be formed from poorly-ordered nanoparticulate precursors, termed amorphous lanthanum carbonate (ALC) and amorphous neodymium carbonate (ANC). When reacted in air or in aqueous solutions these precursors show highly variable lifetimes and crystallization pathways. We have characterized these precursors and the crystallization pathways and products with solid-state, spectroscopic and microscopic techniques to explain the differences in crystallization mechanisms between the La and Nd systems. ALC and ANC consist of highly hydrated, 10-20 nm spherical nanoparticles with a general formula of REE2(CO3)3·5H2O (REE = La, Nd). The stabilities differ by ∼2 orders of magnitude, with ANC being far more stable than ALC. This difference is due to the Nd(3+) ion having a far higher hydration energy compared to the La(3+) ion. This, together with temperature and reaction times, leads to clear differences not only in the kinetics and mechanisms of crystallization of the amorphous precursor La- and Nd-carbonate phases but also in the resulting crystallite sizes and morphologies of the end products. All crystalline La and Nd carbonates developed spherulitic morphologies when crystallization occurred from hydrous phases in solution at temperatures above 60 °C (La system) and 95 °C (Nd system). We suggest that spherulitic growth occurs due to a rapid breakdown of the amorphous precursors and a concurrent rapid increase in supersaturation levels in the aqueous solution. The kinetic data show that the crystallization pathway for both La and Nd carbonate systems is dependent on the reaction temperature and the ionic potential of the REE(3+) ion.