Prevalence and 20-year trends in meditation, yoga, guided imagery and progressive relaxation use among US adults from 2002 to 2022.

Meditation, yoga, guided imagery, and progressive relaxation are promoted as complementary approaches for health and wellbeing in the United States, but their uptake by different sociodemographic groups is unclear. This study assessed the prevalence and 20 year trends in the use of these practices in US adults between 2002-2022. We examined practice use and associations with sociodemographic and health factors in a population-weighted analysis of n = 134,959 participants across 5 cycles of the National Health Interview Survey. The overall use of meditation (18.3%, 60.53 million), yoga (16.8%, 55.78 million) and guided imagery/progressive relaxation (6.7%, 22.22 million) increased significantly from 2002 to 2022. Growth was consistent across most sociodemographic and health strata, however users of 'Other' race (comprising 54% Indigenous Americans, Odds Ratios; ORs = 1.28-1.70) and users with moderate (ORs = 1.19-1.29) psychological distress were overrepresented across all practices, and those with severe psychological distress were overrepresented in meditation (OR = 1.33) and guided imagery/progressive relaxation (OR = 1.42). Meditation use has accelerated over time for 65 + year olds (OR = 4.22), people not accessing mental health care (OR = 1.39), and less educated (OR = 4.02) groups, potentially reflecting unmet health needs. Health professionals should consider the extensive use of complementary practices in service and treatment planning and consider their risks and benefits.

The mental health-related barriers and benefits to exercise in adults with and without chronic pain.

Background: Qualitative evidence points to the importance of both mental health-related barriers and benefits to exercise in chronic pain, yet this bidirectional relationship has not been established quantitatively. Methods: 89 adults with chronic pain (75 female, Age: M = 34.7, SD=13.2), and 89 demographically-matched individuals without chronic pain (73 female, Age: M = 32.0, SD=13.3) self-reported demographic and health information, mental health-related barriers and benefits to exercise, and leisure-time exercise activity. Results: Adults with chronic pain had significantly higher scores on mental health-related barriers to exercise, and lower leisure-time exercise participation than adults without chronic pain. The groups did not differ on mental health-related benefits of exercise scores. Benefits scores positively predicted exercise, yet there was a significant negative interaction between pain and benefit scores, indicating a weaker positive relationship between benefits and exercise for adults with chronic pain than for those without chronic pain. Barrier scores significantly negatively predicted exercise engagement, but did not interact significantly with chronic pain. Conclusion: Mental health-related barriers and benefits to exercise are important considerations when prescribing exercise for adults with chronic pain. Adults with chronic pain may require individualised support to address mental health-related barriers to leisure-time exercise.

Alexithymia and treatment response for prolonged exposure therapy: An evaluation of outcomes and mechanisms.

Alexithymia is the inability to identify and recognize emotions. The present study examined the impact of alexithymia on prolonged exposure (PE) therapy. Participants (n = 68) with PTSD underwent 10 PE sessions. Alexithymia was assessed via the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20) and the emotional clarity and awareness subscales of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Treatment outcomes were assessed via the PTSD checklist and Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition at posttreatment and 6-month follow-up. Those with high alexithymia were more likely to endorse experiencing a full PTSD diagnosis immediately posttreatment, χ²(1) = 12.53, p = .002, and at 6-month follow-up, χ²(1) = 11.21, p = .004. Alexithymia was associated with delayed treatment effects on avoidance, with a significant reduction in symptomology observed from pre- to follow-up, t(51) = 4.52, p < .001, and not from pre- to posttreatment. Although both the low and high alexithymia groups showed significant changes in negative changes in thinking and mood, F(2, 14) = 9.18, p = .001, d = 1.57 and F(2, 50) = 13.86, p = .001, d = 1.49, respectively, the high alexithymia group exhibited a marginally lesser magnitude of treatment effect. Although those with significantly greater difficulties with emotional clarity were more likely to drop out of PE treatment, emotional clarity and awareness did not moderate treatment response. Our results confirm the efficacy of PE but also highlight that those with alexithymia show a delayed treatment response and may be at greater risk of pathology after treatment. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Interactive relationship between alexithymia, psychological distress and posttraumatic stress disorder symptomology across time.

Alexithymia, psychological distress, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are highly related constructs. The ongoing debate about the nature and relationship between these constructs is perpetuated by an overreliance on cross-sectional research. We examined the longitudinal interactive relationship between alexithymia, psychological distress, and PTSD. We hypothesised that there is an interactive relationship between the three constructs. Military personnel (N = 1871) completed the Toronto Alexithymia Scale, the Kessler 10 and a PTSD Checklist (PCL-C) at pre-deployment, post-deployment, and at 3-4 years following the post-deployment assessment. We initially tested whether psychological distress is either a moderator or mediator in the relationship between alexithymia and PTSD across the time points. General psychological distress was a partial mediator of total PTSD severity and hyperarousal symptomology at all three time points. Psychological distress fully mediated re-experiencing and avoidance symptomology at all three time points. Our results suggest that those with alexithymia are at longitudinal risk of developing more severe PTSD symptomology and experiencing hyperarousal irrespective of temporal proximity to traumatic exposure. Further, vulnerability to the emergence of re-experiencing and avoidance symptomology for those with alexithymia is increased when one experiences greater distress. Our results show that alexithymia is a persistent risk factor for PTSD symptomology.

Meditation attenuates default-mode activity: A pilot study using ultra-high field 7 Tesla MRI.

OBJECTIVES: Mapping the neurobiology of meditation has been bolstered by functional MRI (fMRI) research, with advancements in ultra-high field 7 Tesla fMRI further enhancing signal quality and neuroanatomical resolution. Here, we utilize 7 Tesla fMRI to examine the neural substrates of meditation and replicate existing widespread findings, after accounting for relevant physiological confounds. METHODS: In this feasibility study, we scanned 10 beginner meditators (N = 10) while they either attended to breathing (focused attention meditation) or engaged in restful thinking (non-focused rest). We also measured and adjusted the fMRI signal for key physiological differences between meditation and rest. Finally, we explored changes in state mindfulness, state anxiety and focused attention attributes for up to 2 weeks following the single fMRI meditation session. RESULTS: Group-level task fMRI analyses revealed significant reductions in activity during meditation relative to rest in default-mode network hubs, i.e., antero-medial prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortices, precuneus, as well as visual and thalamic regions. These findings survived stringent statistical corrections for fluctuations in physiological responses which demonstrated significant differences (p < 0.05/n, Bonferroni controlled) between meditation and rest. Compared to baseline, State Mindfulness Scale (SMS) scores were significantly elevated (F(3,9) = 8.16, p < 0.05/n, Bonferroni controlled) following the fMRI meditation session, and were closely maintained at 2-week follow up. CONCLUSIONS: This pilot study establishes the feasibility and utility of investigating focused attention meditation using ultra-high field (7 Tesla) fMRI, by supporting widespread evidence that focused attention meditation attenuates default-mode activity responsible for self-referential processing. Future functional neuroimaging studies of meditation should control for physiological confounds and include behavioural assessments.

Posttraumatic Stress and Alexithymia: Symptom Associations.

ABSTRACT: There is a demonstrated association between alexithymia and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, work has largely focused on male-dominant, high-risk occupation populations. We aimed to explore the relationship between posttraumatic stress (PTS) and alexithymia among 100 trauma-exposed female university students. Participants completed a Life Events Checklist, the PTSD Checklist for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth Edition) (PCL-5), and the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20). Multiple regressions were run to examine whether alexithymia was associated with each of the PCL-5 subscales. The TAS-20 total scores were associated with total PTS scores, ß = 0.47, t(99) = 5.22, p < 0.001. On a subscale level, Difficulty in Identifying Feelings (DIF) was positively associated (ß = 0.50 to 0.41) with all PCL-5 subscales except for Avoidance. Our results align with research showing that for women, the DIF subscale is most strongly associated with PTS, in contrast with the literature on male samples, showing strongest associations with the Difficulties in Describing Feelings subscale, suggesting sex differences in associations between PTS and alexithymia. Our study supports the universality of the associations between alexithymia and PTS.

Anxiety and depression related abnormalities in socio-affective learning.

Affective distress (as observed in anxiety and depression) has been observed to be related to insufficient sensitivity to changing reinforcement during operant learning. Whether such findings are specific to anxiety or depression is unclear given a wider literature relating negative affect to abnormal learning and the possibility that relationships are not consistent across incentive types (i.e., punishment and reward) and outcomes (i.e., positive or negative). In two separate samples (n1 = 100; n2 = 88), participants completed an operant learning task with positive or negative, and neutral socio-affective feedback, designed to assess adaptive responses to changing environmental volatility. Individual parameter estimates were generated with hierarchical Bayesian modelling. Effects of manipulations were modelled by decomposing parameters into a linear combination of effects on the logit scale. While effects tended to support prior work, neither general affective distress nor anxiety or depression were consistently related to a decrease in the adaptive adjustment of learning-rates in response to changing environmental volatility (Sample 1: ßα:volatility = -0.01, 95 % HDI = -0.14, 0.13; Sample 2: ßα:volatility = -0.15, 95 % HDI = -0.37, 0.05). Interaction effects in Sample 1 suggested that while distress was associated with decrements in adaptive learning under punishment-minimisation, it was associated with improvements under reward-maximisation. While our results are broadly consistent with prior work, they suggest that the role of anxiety or depression in volatility learning, if present, is subtle and difficult to detect. Inconsistencies between our samples, along with issues of parameter identifiability complicated interpretation.

Enhancing Therapeutic Processes in Videoconferencing Psychotherapy: Interview Study of Psychologists' Technological Perspective.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic caused a surge in the use of telehealth platforms. Psychologists have shifted from face-to-face sessions to videoconference sessions. Therefore, essential information that is easily obtainable via in-person sessions may be missing. Consequently, therapeutic work could be compromised. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to explore the videoconference psychotherapy (VCP) experiences of psychologists around the world. Furthermore, we aimed to identify technological features that may enhance psychologists' therapeutic work through augmented VCP. METHODS: In total, 17 psychologists across the world (n=7, 41% from Australia; n=1, 6% from England; n=5, 29% from Italy; n=1, 6% from Mexico; n=1, 6% from Spain; and n=2, 12% from the United States) were interviewed. We used thematic analysis to examine the data collected from a sample of 17 psychologists. We applied the Chaos Theory to interpret the system dynamics and collected details about the challenges posed by VCP. For collecting further information about the technology and processes involved, we relied on the Input-Process-Output (IPO) model. RESULTS: The analysis resulted in the generation of 9 themes (input themes: psychologists' attitude, trust-reinforcing features, reducing cognitive load, enhancing emotional communication, and engaging features between psychologists and patients; process themes: building and reinforcing trust, decreasing cognitive load, enhancing emotional communication, and increasing psychologist-patient engagement) and 19 subthemes. Psychologists found new strategies to deal with VCP limitations but also reported the need for more technical control to facilitate therapeutic processes. The suggested technologies (eye contact functionality, emergency call functionality, screen control functionality, interactive interface with other apps and software, and zooming in and out functionality) could enhance the presence and dynamic nature of the therapeutic relationship. CONCLUSIONS: Psychologists expressed a desire for enhanced control of VCP sessions. Psychologists reported a decreased sense of control within the therapeutic relationship owing to the influence of the VCP system. Great control of the VCP system could better approximate the critical elements of in-person psychotherapy (eg, observation of body language). To facilitate improved control, psychologists would like technology to implement features such as improved eye contact, better screen control, emergency call functionality, ability to zoom in and out, and an interactive interface to communicate with other apps. These results contribute to the general perception of the computer as an actual part of the VCP process. Thus, the computer plays a key role in the communication, rather than remaining as a technical medium. By adopting the IPO model in the VCP environment (VCP-IPO model), the relationship experience may help psychologists have more control in their VCP sessions.

Development and Psychometric Validation of the Mental Health-Related Barriers and Benefits to EXercise (MEX) Scale in Healthy Adults.

BACKGROUND: Physical exercise has been shown to reduce anxiety and depression symptoms, the most common mental health disorders globally. Despite the benefits of exercise in anxiety and depression, the symptoms of these disorders may directly contribute to a lack of engagement with exercise. However, mental health-related barriers and benefits to exercise engagement have not been addressed in quantitative research. We introduce the development and psychometric validation of the Mental health-related barriers and benefits to EXercise (MEX) scale. METHODS: Three samples were collected online prospectively (sample 1 n = 492; sample 2 n = 302; sample 3 n = 303) for scale refinement and validation with exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. All participants were generally healthy adults, aged 18-45, and had no history of severe mental illness requiring hospitalization and no physical disability impacting over 50% of daily function. RESULTS: We identified a 30-item, two-factor model comprising 15 barrier and 15 benefit items. Overall model fit was excellent for an item-level scale across the three samples (Comparative Fit Index = 0.935-0.951; Root-Mean-Square Error of Approximation = 0.037-0.039). Internal consistency was also excellent across the three samples (α = 0.900-0.951). The barriers subscale was positively correlated with symptoms of anxiety, depression and stress, and negatively correlated with measures of physical activity and exercise engagement. The benefits subscale was negatively correlated with symptoms of anxiety, depression and stress, and positively correlated with measures of physical activity and exercise engagement. CONCLUSION: The MEX is a novel, psychometrically robust scale, which is appropriate for research and for clinical use to ascertain individual and/or group level mental health-related barriers and benefits to exercise.

Emotion response disconcordance among trauma-exposed adults: the impact of alexithymia.

BACKGROUND: Emotion processing deficits have been identified as a critical transdiagnostic factor that facilitates distress after trauma exposure. Limited skills in identifying and labelling emotional states (i.e. alexithymia) may present on the more automated (less conscious) end of the spectrum of emotional awareness and clarity. Individuals with alexithymia tend to exhibit a disconcordance between subjective experience and autonomic activity (e.g. where high levels of subjective emotional intensity are associated with low physiological arousal), which may exacerbate distress. Although there is a robust link between alexithymia and trauma exposure, no work to date has explored whether alexithymia is associated with emotional response disconcordance among trauma-exposed adults. METHOD: Using a validated trauma script paradigm, the present study explored the impact of alexithymia on emotion response concordance [skin conductance (Galvanic Skin Response, GSR) and Total Mood Disturbance (TMD)] among 74 trauma-exposed adults recruited via a posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) treatment clinic and student research programme. RESULTS: Unlike posttraumatic symptom severity, age, sex, participant type and mood (which showed no effect on emotion response concordance), alexithymia was associated with heightened emotion response disconcordance between GSR and TMD [F(1, 37) = 8.93, p = 0.006], with low GSR being associated with high TMD. Observed effects of the trauma script were entirely accounted for by the interaction with alexithymia, such that those with alexithymia showed a negligible association between subjective and physiological states. CONCLUSION: This finding is paramount as it shows that a large proportion of trauma-exposed adults have a divergent emotion engagement profile.

Microstructural deficits of the thalamus in major depressive disorder.

Macroscopic structural abnormalities in the thalamus and thalamic circuits have been implicated in the neuropathology of major depressive disorder. However, cytoarchitectonic properties underlying these macroscopic abnormalities remain unknown. Here, we examined systematic deficits of brain architecture in depression, from structural brain network organization to microstructural properties. A multi-modal neuroimaging approach including diffusion, anatomical and quantitative MRI was used to examine structural-related alternations in 56 patients with depression compared with 35 age- and sex-matched controls. The seed-based probabilistic tractography showed multiple alterations of structural connectivity within a set of subcortical areas and their connections to cortical regions in patients with depression. These subcortical regions included the putamen, thalamus and caudate, which are predominantly involved in the limbic-cortical-striatal-pallidal-thalamic network. Structural connectivity was disrupted within and between large-scale networks, including the subcortical network, default-mode network and salience network. Consistently, morphometric measurements, including cortical thickness and voxel-based morphometry, showed widespread volume reductions of these key regions in patients with depression. A conjunction analysis identified common structural alternations of the left orbitofrontal cortex, left putamen, bilateral thalamus and right amygdala across macro-modalities. Importantly, the microstructural properties, longitudinal relaxation time of the left thalamus was increased and inversely correlated with its grey matter volume in patients with depression. Together, this work to date provides the first macro-micro neuroimaging evidence for the structural abnormalities of the thalamus in patients with depression, shedding light on the neuropathological disruptions of the limbic-cortical-striatal-pallidal-thalamic circuit in major depressive disorder. These findings have implications in understanding the abnormal changes of brain structures across the development of depression.

Dose-response Relationship of Reported Lifetime Meditation Practice with Mental Health and Wellbeing: a Cross-sectional Study.

Objectives: Meta-analyses of meditation studies have revealed mixed modest evidence of benefits across a range of outcomes. However, because this evidence-base is predominantly from brief interventions, it is unclear whether it accurately reflects how contemporary meditators practice or the dose-response relationship between amount of practice and outcome. This study sought to characterize how contemporary meditators practice, examine any possible dose-response relationships between historical practice and measures of psychological wellbeing, and explore which characteristics of practice most strongly predict favorable psychological outcomes. Methods: One thousand six hundred and sixty-eight meditators (M = 1095 h practice, SD = 2365) responded to advertisements in meditation practice communities and social media. We explored associations between demographics, meditation practice characteristics, and outcomes including positive and negative affect, psychological distress, and life satisfaction in a cross-sectional study design. Results: Historical meditation practice (accumulated lifetime hours) was significantly associated with favorable psychological outcomes (|r| ranging from .18 to .28). Model fit was optimized with a generalized additive model (average increase in R 2 = 2.22), indicating non-linear effects. The strength of association between practice time and outcomes was generally strongest for approximately the first 500 h, before plateauing. Several practice types including Vipassana (as taught by S.N. Goenka) and cultivating practices (e.g. compassion, lovingkindness) were more strongly predictive of favorable psychological outcomes. Conclusions: Benefits of meditation accrue over time in a non-linear manner, and show variation based on practice context. These results highlight the importance of understanding how the benefits of meditation accrue over longer time durations than typical standardized programs. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12671-022-01977-6.

Focused attention meditation in healthy adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cross-sectional functional MRI studies.

Meditation trains the mind to focus attention towards an object or experience. Among different meditation techniques, focused attention meditation is considered foundational for more advanced practices. Despite renewed interest in its functional neural correlates, there is no unified neurocognitive model of focused attention meditation developed via quantitative synthesis of contemporary literature. Hence, we performed a quantitative systematic review and meta-analysis of all functional MRI studies examining focussed attention meditation. Following PRISMA guidelines, 28 studies were included in this review, of which 10 studies (200 participants) were amenable to activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis. We found that regions comprising three key functional brain networks i.e., Default-mode, Salience, and Executive Control, were consistently implicated in focused attention meditation. Furthermore, meditation expertise, mindfulness levels and attentional skills were found to significantly influence the magnitude, but not regional extent, of activation and functional connectivity in these networks. Aggregating all evidence, we present a unified neurocognitive brain-network model of focused attention meditation.

A predictive coding account of value-based learning in PTSD: Implications for precision treatments.

While there are a number of recommended first-line interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), treatment efficacy has been less than ideal. Generally, PTSD treatment models explain symptom manifestation via associative learning, treating the individual as a passive organism - acted upon - rather than self as agent. At their core, predictive coding (PC) models introduce the fundamental role of self-conceptualisation and hierarchical processing of one's sensory context in safety learning. This theoretical article outlines how predictive coding models of emotion offer a parsimonious framework to explain PTSD treatment response within a value-based decision-making framework. Our model integrates the predictive coding elements of the perceived: self, world and self-in the world and how they impact upon one or more discrete stages of value-based decision-making: (1) mental representation; (2) emotional valuation; (3) action selection and (4) outcome valuation. We discuss treatment and research implications stemming from our hypotheses.

The Effects of Mindfulness and Meditation on Vagally Mediated Heart Rate Variability: A Meta-Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Heart rate variability (HRV) is a marker of autonomic nervous system function associated with both physical and mental health. Many studies have suggested that mindfulness and meditation-based interventions (MBIs) are associated with improvements in HRV, but findings are mixed, and to date, no comprehensive meta-analysis has synthesized results. METHODS: Systematic literature searches were conducted using PsycINFO, Embase, Medline, CINAHL, ERIC, and Scopus to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating the effects of predominantly seated MBIs on resting-state vagally mediated HRV. Risk of bias was judged using the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool. RESULTS: Nineteen RCTs met the criteria for inclusion in the meta-analysis. Random-effects meta-analysis found that MBIs were not efficacious in increasing vagally mediated resting-state HRV relative to control conditions (Hedges g = 0.38, 95% confidence interval [CI] = -0.014 to 0.77). When removing an outlier (g = 3.22), the effect size was reduced, CI narrowed, and findings remained nonsignificant (g = 0.19, 95% CI = -0.02 to 0.39). High heterogeneity in results (I2 = 89.12%) could not be explained by a priori-determined moderators including intervention duration, study setting, and control type. CONCLUSIONS: There is currently insufficient evidence to indicate that MBIs lead to improvements in vagally mediated HRV over control conditions. Future large, well-designed RCTs with low risk of methodological bias could help add to the current evidence to elucidate any role MBIs might play in impacting HRV.

Intrinsic organization of cortical networks predicts state anxiety: an functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) study.

Although state anxiety has been characterized by hyper-responsive subcortical activity and its bottom-up connectivity with cortical regions, the role of cortical networks in state anxiety is not yet well understood. To this end, we decoded individual state anxiety by using a machine-learning approach based on resting-state functional connectivity (RSFC) with functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Our results showed that the RSFC among a set of cortical networks were highly predictive of state anxiety, rather than trait anxiety. Specifically, these networks included connectivity between cortical areas in the default mode network (DMN) and dorsal attention network (DAN), and connectivity within the DMN, which were negatively correlated with state anxiety; connectivity between cortical areas in the DMN and frontoparietal network (FPN), FPN and salience network (SN), FPN and DAN, DMN and SN, which were positively correlated with state anxiety. These findings suggest a predictive role of intrinsic cortical organization in the assessment of state anxiety. The work provides new insights into potential neural mechanisms of emotion states and implications for prognosis, diagnosis, and treatment of affective disorders.

Amygdala-prefrontal connectivity modulates loss aversion bias in anxious individuals.

Anxious individuals tend to make pessimistic judgments in decision making under uncertainty. While this phenomenon is commonly attributed to risk aversion, loss aversion is a critical but often overlooked factor. In this study, we simultaneously examined risk aversion and loss aversion during decision making in high and low trait anxious individuals in a variable gain/loss gambling task during functional magnetic resonance imaging. Although high relative to low anxious individuals showed significant increased risk aversive behavior reflected by decreased overall gamble decisions, there was no group difference in subjective aversion to risk. Instead, loss aversion rather than risk aversion dominantly contributed to predict behavioral decisions, which was associated with attenuated functional connectivity between the amygdala-based emotional system and the prefrontal control regions. Our findings suggest a dominant role of loss aversion in maladaptive risk assessment of anxious individuals, underpinned by disorganization of emotion-related and cognitive-control-related brain networks.