Towards harmonization of water quality management: A comparison of chemical drinking water and surface water quality standards around the globe.

Water quality standards (WQS) set the legal definition for safe and desirable water. WQS impose regulatory concentration limits to act as a jurisdiction-specific legislative risk-management tool. Despite its importance in shaping a universal definition of safe, clean water, little information exists with respect to (dis)similarity of chemical WQS worldwide. Therefore, this paper compares chemical WQS for drinking and surface water matrices in eight jurisdictions representing a global geographic distribution: Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, the European Union, the region of Flanders in Belgium, the United States of America, and South Africa. The World Health Organization's list is used as a reference for drinking water standards. Sørensen-Dice indices (SDI) showed little qualitative similarity in the compounds that are regulated in drinking water (median SDI = 40%) and surface water (median SDI = 33%), indicating that the heterogeneity within a matrix is substantial at the level of the standard. Quantitative similarity for matching standards was higher than the qualitative per Kendall correlation (median = 0.73 and 0.58 for drinking water and surface water respectively), yet variance observed within standards remained inexplicably high for organic compounds. Variations in WQS were more pronounced for organic compounds. Most differences cannot be easily explained from a toxicological or risk-based point-of-view. Historical development, ease of measurement, and (toxicological) knowledge gaps on the risk of a vast number of organic compounds are theorized to be the drivers. Therefore, this study argues for a more tailored, risk-based approach in which standards incorporated into water safety plans are dynamically set for compounds that are persistent and could pose a risk for human health and/or aquatic ecosystems. Global variations in WQS should therefore not necessarily be avoided but rather globally harmonized with enough flexibility to ensure a global, up-to-date definition of safe and desirable water everywhere.

Bottle or tap? Toward an integrated approach to water type consumption.

While in many countries, people have access to cheap and safe potable tap water, the global consumption of bottled water is rising. Flanders, Belgium, where this study is located, has an exceptionally high consumption of bottled water per capita. However, in the interest of resource efficiency and global environmental challenges, the consumption of tap water is preferable. To our knowledge, an integrated analysis of the main reasons why people consume tap and bottled water is absent in Flanders, Belgium. Using Flemish survey data (N = 2309), we first compared tap and bottled water consumers through bivariate correlation analysis. Subsequently, path modelling techniques were used to further investigate these correlations. Our results show that bottled water consumption in Flanders is widespread despite environmental and financial considerations. For a large part, this is caused by negative perceptions about tap water. Many consumers consider it unhealthy, unsafe and prefer the taste of bottled water. Furthermore, we found that the broader social context often inhibits the consumption of tap water. On the one hand, improper infrastructures (e.g. lead piping) can limit access to potable tap water. On the other hand, social norms exist that promote bottled water. Lastly, results suggest that the consumption of bottled water is most common among men, older people and less educated groups. We conclude that future research and policy measures will benefit from an approach that integrates all behavioural aspects associated with water type consumption. This will enable both governments and tap water companies to devise more effective policies to manage and support tap water supply networks.

Quality control of liquid herbal drug preparations: ethanol content and test on methanol and 2-propanol.

In the quality control of liquid herbal drug preparations, i.e. tinctures and liquid extracts, the ethanol content is determined and the test on methanol and 2-propanol is performed. Capillary headspace GC/MS methods for both analyses were developed and fully validated. These specific, selective, accurate and precise methods are a fast and fully automated alternative for the laborious methods of the European Pharmacopoeia, since they need no or only simple sample preparation.

Antiviral activity of simalikalactone D, a quassinoid from Quassia africana.

After removing lipophilic material, the ground root bark of Quassia africana Baill. (Simaroubaceae) was extracted with ethanol 95 %. Partitioning between chloroform, ethyl acetate and water yielded three crude extracts. Pronounced activities were shown by the chloroform and ethyl acetate crude extracts against Herpes simplex, Semliki forest, Coxsackie and Vesicular stomatitis viruses. By repeated column chromatography and preparative thin layer chromatography on silica gel, two quassinoids, i. e., quassin and simalikalactone D were isolated. Structures of the pure compounds were established primarily using NMR spectroscopy. Mass spectral information confirmed the assigned structures. Simalikalactone D was responsible, at least in part, for the high antiviral activity observed for the chloroform crude extract. Quassin showed no activity. For quassinoids the ester group at C-15 and the epoxymethano bridge between C-8 and C-13 appeared to be important structural features in order to exhibit a pronounced antiviral activity.