Cross-validation of standardisation techniques at ANSTO using cobalt-60 and learnings from the presence and identification of non-gamma-ray emitting impurities.

To fulfil the technical requirements for accreditation to ISO/IEC 17025, the end-to-end validation of all processes associated with standardising 60Co, including gravimetric source dispensing, primary standardisation by the 4π(LS)ß-γ coincidence and live-timed anti-coincidence extrapolation techniques, and impurity determination were performed and documented. Pure-beta-emitting impurities in a 60Co stock solution were identified. The impact of such impurities on measurement by liquid scintillation counting and comparison in the ESIR are discussed. A fresh 60Co source was produced, standardised, and compared using the SIR.

Characterisation of a well-type NaI(Tl) detector by means of a Monte Carlo simulation for radionuclide metrology application.

A well-type NaI(Tl) detector was modelled and characterised by means of a Monte Carlo simulation, as part of a project to develop a 4πß (Plastic Scintillator)-4πγ instrument to be used for the primary standardisation of radionuclides at ANSTO. The simulation based on GEANT4 was used to characterise the 4πγ detector in terms of potential dead layer/inactive materials, full energy peak efficiency, coincidence-summing correction, and energy resolution. An excellent agreement was obtained between the simulation results and the experimental measurements.

Primary standardisation of technetium-99m by liquid scintillation coincidence counting.

Technetium-99m was standardised by the 4π(LS)ce-γ coincidence extrapolation method. Sensitivity of the 4π(LS) channel to two types of radiation, namely conversion electrons and γ-rays, resulted in incorrect activity values being obtained when this was not adequately accounted for. Measurements were more robust when the LS detection efficiency was optimised, and when a γ-window setting was used that monitored the combined LS efficiency for conversion electrons and γ-rays. The primary standard was internationally compared through participation in the BIPM.RI(II)-K4.Tc99m key comparison.

Development of the Australian Standard for Germanium-68 by two Liquid Scintillation Counting methods.

In response to the increasing application of 68Ge/68Ga and 68Ga in nuclear medicine, an international comparison of activity measurement of 68Ge in equilibrium with 68Ga was organised. ANSTO standardised the comparison solution by the 4π(LS)ß+-γ coincidence extrapolation and TDCR efficiency calculation methods, with excellent agreement between the two results. The primary standard was transferred to the ANSTO Secondary Standard Ionisation Chamber. Internationally traceable Australian Certified Reference Materials (ACRMs) of 68Ge/68Ga can now be prepared in various measurement geometries applied in nuclear medicine.

Evidence against solar influence on nuclear decay constants.

The hypothesis that proximity to the Sun causes variation of decay constants at permille level has been tested and disproved. Repeated activity measurements of mono-radionuclide sources were performed over periods from 200 days up to four decades at 14 laboratories across the globe. Residuals from the exponential nuclear decay curves were inspected for annual oscillations. Systematic deviations from a purely exponential decay curve differ from one data set to another and are attributable to instabilities in the instrumentation and measurement conditions. The most stable activity measurements of alpha, beta-minus, electron capture, and beta-plus decaying sources set an upper limit of 0.0006% to 0.008% to the amplitude of annual oscillations in the decay rate. Oscillations in phase with Earth's orbital distance to the Sun could not be observed within a 10-6 to 10-5 range of precision. There are also no apparent modulations over periods of weeks or months. Consequently, there is no indication of a natural impediment against sub-permille accuracy in half-life determinations, renormalisation of activity to a distant reference date, application of nuclear dating for archaeology, geo- and cosmochronology, nor in establishing the SI unit becquerel and seeking international equivalence of activity standards.

Standardization of Tc-99 by three liquid scintillation counting methods.

The NMISA participated in the international key comparison of the pure beta-emitter Technetium-99, CCRI(II)-K2.Tc-99. The comparison solution was standardized using three methods, namely the TDCR efficiency calculation method, the CIEMAT/NIST efficiency tracing method and the 4π(LS)ß-γ coincidence tracing method with Co-60 as tracer. Excellent agreement between results obtained with the three methods confirmed the applicability of the beta spectral shape given by the latest (2011) DDEP evaluation of Tc-99 decay data, rather than the earlier (2004) evaluation.

First participation by the NMISA in a low-level comparison: CCRI(II)-S9 exercise.

The NMISA Radioactivity Standards Laboratory participated in the CCRI(II)-S9 inter-comparison of the measurement of the activity concentration of (137)Cs and (40)K in rice material, piloted by the KRISS. The paper describes the equipment used, the measurement set-up and data analysis. The efficiency of the detector for (137)Cs and (40)K was determined by comparison against a spiked standard solution, and Monte Carlo simulations performed to estimate the difference in γ-ray escape probability between the solution standard and starch (as an approximation for milled rice) due to attenuation disparities. The uncertainty budget was estimated rather conservatively, since these were the first low-level measurements performed by the NMISA using an HPGe detector.

Results of an international comparison for the activity measurement of 177Lu.

An international Key Comparison of (177)Lu has recently been carried out. Twelve laboratories performed assays for radioactivity content on aliquots of a common master solution of (177)Lu, leading to eleven results submitted for entry into the Key Comparison Database of the Mutual Recognition Arrangement. A proposed Comparison Reference Value (CRV) was calculated to be 3.288(4)MBq/g using all eleven results. Degrees of equivalence and their uncertainties were calculated for each laboratory based on the CRV. Most of the values reported by the participating laboratories were within 0.6% of the CRV.

Accurate activity measurement of Lu-177 by the liquid scintillation 4πß-γ coincidence counting technique.

This paper reports on absolute measurements made at the NMISA by the 4π[LS]ß-γ coincidence extrapolation technique, which formed part of a key comparison of activity measurements of the radionuclide lutetium-177, a beta-gamma emitter. A detection efficiency analysis based on the decay scheme indicated that the coincidence extrapolation method is feasible for extracting the source disintegration rate of (177)Lu. A simulation was undertaken utilizing the efficiency equations to give an indication of the expected variation of the source count rate with efficiency for different gamma-ray windows. Both the simulation and experiment indicated that the window giving the highest counting efficiency was centered about the 208.4 keV photopeak, with the data showing linear variation in the upper efficiency range. The extracted activity concentration of the (177)Lu solution proved to be highly accurate, being higher than the proposed comparison reference value by 0.15%, well within one standard uncertainty (σ=0.26%) as specified by the NMISA.

Absolute standardization of 241Pu by the TDCR technique and effect of the beta spectral shape.

The NMISA participated in the 2010 international key comparison of (241)Pu, standardizing the inter-comparison solution by the TDCR efficiency calculation technique. Special attention was paid to ensure accurate efficiency calculation for this low-energy, pure beta-emitter: in particular the effect of low-energy stopping powers on the calculation of ionization quenching was assessed and an optimal value for the quench parameter, kB, was determined. In addition, phototube efficiency mismatch was accounted for by a software minimization technique. The effect of the beta spectral shape on the activity extracted from data analysis was assessed and found to be significant. Based on the results of this work we propose a new value for the average beta-particle energy.

Fe-55 activity measurements at the NMISA revisited.

Twenty years ago South Africa's Radioactivity Standards Laboratory (now operated by the NMISA) was the first to measure the activity of (55)Fe by combining the triple-to-double coincidence ratio (TDCR) liquid scintillation method with theoretical efficiency formulae. The extracted activity was however found to be consistently low by about 6%. Due to improvements in both the counting system and analysis technique, it was decided to re-examine the method as applied at the NMISA. The latest results are presented and discussed, particularly with regard to a quantitative study into which vial type is better suited to obtaining accurate (55)Fe activity measurements.

Comparison of triple-to-double coincidence ratio (TDCR) efficiency calculations and uncertainty assessments for 99Tc.

A comparison exercise for data analysis was recently conducted by the Liquid Scintillation Counting Working Group (LSCWG) of the International Committee on Radionuclide Metrology (ICRM) to evaluate the uncertainties involved in applying different analysis methodologies (including computer programs) for the triple-to-double coincidence ratio (TDCR) method. The goals of the comparison were to (1) study differences in calculation results from different TDCR analysis programs, (2) investigate differences in analysis techniques and uncertainty assessment philosophies between laboratories, and (3) study the effect of not taking asymmetry of photomultiplier tube (PMT) efficiencies into account on the calculated activity. To achieve this, a single set of TDCR data for the pure beta emitter (99)Tc, was distributed to the participants, who analyzed the data according to their normal procedures and report the activity concentration of the (99)Tc solution from their results. The results indicate that the presently used programs are generally able to calculate the same activity values, assuming that the correct input parameters are used and that not taking PMT asymmetry into account in the calculations can lead to significant (0.6% for (99)Tc) errors in reported results. The comparison also highlighted the need for a more rigorous approach to estimating and reporting uncertainties.

Absolute activity of (133)Ba by liquid scintillation coincidence counting using the 4pi(e,X)-gamma extrapolation technique.

The Technical Committee for Ionizing Radiation (TCRI) of the Asia Pacific Metrology Programme (APMP) recently organized a regional key comparison of activity measurements of the radionuclide (133)Ba. This paper reports on absolute measurements made at the National Metrology Institute of South Africa (NMISA) by the coincidence extrapolation technique, with liquid scintillation counting (LSC) comprising the 4pi channel. A detection efficiency analysis was undertaken to predict the maximum efficiency likely to be achieved and to confirm that the method does indeed provide the source disintegration rate for (133)Ba. Various experimental and data analysis difficulties to be aware of are discussed in the paper.

Further investigations of a simple counting technique for measuring mixtures of two pure beta-emitting radionuclides.

A simple liquid scintillation counting technique to measure the activity composition of a mixture containing two known pure beta-emitting radionuclides was recently developed at the NMISA. The method has been applied to various two-component mixtures of (32)P, (33)P and (35)S, primarily to gauge the effect of spectral energy differences on the method's ability to extract the individual activities. Excellent results were obtained for mixtures of (33)P and (35)S, radionuclides with similar, low beta energies. Mixtures containing the high-energy beta-emitter (32)P were more difficult to resolve, although quenching of the counting sources with CHCl(3) improved mixture resolution.

Comparison of calculated spectra for the interaction of photons in a liquid scintillator. Example of 54Mn 835 keV emission.

The CIEMAT/NIST and TDCR methods in liquid scintillation counting, initially developed for the activity standardization of pure-beta radionuclides, have been extended to the standardization of electron capture and beta-gamma radionuclides. Both methods require the calculation of the energy spectrum absorbed by the liquid scintillator. For radionuclides emitting X-rays or gamma-rays, when the energy is greater than a few tens of keV the Compton interaction is important and the absorption is not total. In this case, the spectrum absorbed by the scintillator must be calculated using analytical or stochastic models. An illustration of this problem is the standardization of 54Mn, which is a radionuclide decaying by electron capture. The gamma transition, very weakly converted, leads to the emission of an 835 keV photon. The calculation of the detection efficiency of this radionuclide requires the calculation of the energy spectrum transferred to the scintillator after the absorption of the gamma ray and the associated probability of absorption. The validity of the method is thus dependent on the correct calculation of the energy transferred to the scintillator. In order to compare the calculation results obtained using various calculation tools, and to provide the metrology community with some information on the choice of these tools, the LS working group of the ICRM organised a comparison of the calculated absorbed spectra for the 835 keV photon of 54Mn. The result is the spectrum of the energy absorbed by the scintillator per emission of an 835 keV gamma ray. This exercise was proposed for a standard 20 ml LS glass vial and for LS cocktail volumes of 10 and 15 ml. The calculation was done for two different cocktails: toluene and a widely used commercial cocktail, Ultima Gold. The paper describes the results obtained by nine participants using a total of 12 calculation codes.

Absolute activity measurement of the electron-capture-based radionuclides 139Ce, 125I, 192Ir and 65Zn by liquid scintillation coincidence counting.

Four radionuclides with electron-capture-based decay schemes have been directly measured by a liquid scintillation coincidence extrapolation technique. 125I, 192Ir and 65Zn were measured as part of international key comparisons held under the auspices of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). The 139Ce measurements formed part of a regional comparison organized by the Asia Pacific Metrology Programme (APMP). Since 139Ce decays purely by electron-capture, the basic method is described for this radionuclide. Results and difficulties encountered are discussed and uncertainty budgets are presented.

Activity measurements of the high-energy pure beta-emitters 89Sr and 90Y by the TDCR efficiency calculation technique.

The absolute activities of the pure beta-emitters 89Sr and 90Y have been determined by a direct method, namely the triple-to-double coincidence ratio (TDCR) efficiency calculation technique. This undertaking has extended further the number of radionuclides that have been standardized by this non-extrapolation liquid scintillation (LS) method. Both measurements were carried out within the framework of international key comparisons under the auspices of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). The TDCR results agreed well with those of other participating national laboratories, most using alternative (tracer) methods.

The IFIN-HH triple coincidence liquid scintillation counter.

The paper summarizes the IFIN-HH triple coincidence liquid scintillation counter used for the implementation of the TDCR method. The electronic unit was recently extended to record the three individual double coincidence ratios to take into account the differences in the quantum efficiencies of the three-photomultiplier tubes. Some details of the electronic system and the data processing are given. The critical point of a TDCR counter is to adjust correctly the discriminator levels on the three channels under the single electron peak. The paper describes the method of adjustment based on the evolution of the dark counting rate versus the discriminator level. Also indicated is the influence of the discrimination level on the activity results as measured at IFIN-HH using a 3H standard. The performances of the IFIN-HH TDCR counter was checked against the measurement results of the TDCR counters of CSIR NML (South Africa), RC (Poland) and LNHB (France). A set of ready-to-measure 63Ni sources in liquid scintillator, in sealed counting vials, was prepared and dispatched for measurement to all these laboratories. The paper describes designs of the TDCR counters used. An analysis and discussion of the measurement results is given.

Serogroup-reactive and type-specific detection of bluetongue virus antibodies using chicken scFvs in inhibition ELISAs.

Two bluetongue virus (BTV) serotype 10-specific single-chain Fv chicken antibody fragments (scFvs) were evaluated in a competitive ELISA. The binding of one (F3) to purified BTV was only inhibited by antibodies against the homologous serotype. The binding of the other (F10) was blocked by antisera to each of the 24 BTV serotypes. F10 recognised VP7, a major structural protein of the BTV core, but not if the protein was directly adsorbed to a plastic surface. It did, however, bind to recombinant VP7 that had been captured from suspension by rabbit IgG. This made it possible to develop an scFv based inhibition ELISA for BTV antibodies using recombinant VP7 without prior purification. The resulting immunoassay detected antibodies to 24 BTV serotypes, but not those directed against three serotypes of the related epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus. A phage library displaying fusion peptides expressed by fragments of the BTV genome segment 7 cDNA was constructed and screened using F10. Comparing selected peptides with the amino acid sequence of VP7 showed that recognition by the scFv required at least 131 residues representing the protein's upper domain. By providing well-characterised immunological reagents, recombinant antibody technology can contribute to the development of improved immunoassays for BTV diagnosis.

Development of activity standard for 90 Y microspheres.

(90)Y microspheres are important therapeutic radiopharmaceuticals used in the treatment of liver cancer through a process known as selective internal radiation therapy. SIR-spheres is a radiopharmaceutical product that is comprised of (90)Y microspheres suspended in sterile, pyrogen-free water for injection into patients. It is necessary to establish for the SIR-spheres production the capability of accurately measuring the activity of this product to a traceable national measurement standard. An activity standard for SIR-spheres was developed from a standard for (90)Y solution, employing a highly quantifiable chemical digestion process. Calibration factors for the manufacturer's ionisation chambers were determined for 1 and 5 ml of the SIR-spheres product placed in Wheaton vials, for both 34% and 44% of (90)Y microsphere concentration.