Exploring Sociodemographic and Mental Health Differences Among Constructed Male Victim Severity Profiles.

Stigmas and taboos surrounding male sexual violence, stating that men cannot be sexually victimized and would not experience many adverse effects as a result, continue to shroud the issue of male sexual victimization (SV). Male victims, therefore, remain under-recognized in research, policy, and treatment provisions. Furthermore, knowledge regarding male SV is severely compromised by studying male victims in convenience samples with a focus on hands-on forms of sexual violence. Finally, severity of SV is often described using a one-dimensional approach based on presumed severity leading to an oversimplified image. This study addresses these various gaps in scientific research by constructing severity profiles of male SV based on self-reported consequences, prevalence, and co-occurrence of SV. A total of 1,078 male victims were selected from a Belgian nationally representative sample collected between October 2019 and January 2021. Profiles are constructed using latent class analysis. Sociodemographic differences across the profiles are examined through multinomial regression analysis. Finally, differences in current mental health problems across the profiles are assessed. Four distinct male victim profiles are identified: (a) low severity-low victimization (58.3%), (b) medium severity-hands-off victimization (21.4%), (c) medium severity-poly-victimization (13.3%), and (d) high severity-poly-victimization (7.0%). Group comparisons show how male victims in the high-severity class report significantly higher rates of mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, and suicide and/or self-harm. Significant differences in class membership were found for age, occupational status, relationship status, sexual orientation, and financial status. This study provides new insights in the patterns of male SV and highlights the presence of poly-victimization among male victims. Additionally, we point out how the so-called minor forms of SV (i.e., hands-off SV) can have a large effect on male victims. The study ends with suggestions for care and future research.

Victimization of Applicants for International Protection Residing in Belgium: Sexual Violence and Help-Seeking Behavior.

BACKGROUND: Sexual violence (SV) literature on applicants for international protection (AIPs) shows that they are at high risk of victimization. The study objectives are to provide an exploratory overview of the occurrence of SV in AIPs in Belgium and their help-seeking behavior (HSB). This overview is crucial to develop prevention strategies and care paths focusing on providing adequate care to AIP SV victims in Belgium. METHODS: Quantitative data from structured interviews with AIPs (n = 62) triangulated with qualitative data from in-depth interviews with AIP SV victims (n = 11) served to explore the nature and impact of SV in AIPs in Belgium and their HSB. RESULTS: A total of 83.9% of respondents have experienced SV. A total of 61.3% were victimized within the past year. Victimization seems more gender-balanced than in the general population. AIPs link SV to their legal status and their associated vulnerable situation. HSB upon SV was very limited in this sample. Help-seeking barriers interfering with the decision-making process to consult (in)formal resources were identified. CONCLUSIONS: AIPs in Belgium are at high risk of SV. Despite the impact of SV on AIPs' lives, HSB upon SV is rare. The provision of age-appropriate sexual education and development of policies that will reduce help-seeking barriers is needed.

An assessment of the proportion of LGB+ persons in the Belgian population, their identification as sexual minority, mental health and experienced minority stress.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies report vast mental health problems in sexual minority people. Representative national proportion estimates on self-identifying LGB+ persons are missing in Belgium. Lacking data collection regarding sexual orientation in either census or governmental survey data limits our understanding of the true population sizes of different sexual orientation groups and their respective health outcomes. This study assessed the proportion of LGB+ and heterosexual persons in Belgium, LGB+ persons' self-identification as sexual minority, mental health, and experienced minority stress. METHOD: A representative sample of 4632 individuals drawn from the Belgian National Register completed measures of sexual orientation, subjective minority status, and its importance for their identity as well as a range of mental-health measures. RESULTS: LGB+ participants made up 10.02% of the total sample and 52.59% of LGB+ participants self-identified as sexual minority. Most sexual minority participants considered sexual minority characteristics important for their identity. LGB+ persons reported significantly worse mental health than heterosexual persons. Sexual minority participants did not report high levels of minority stress, but those who considered minority characteristics key for their identity reported higher levels of minority stress. LGB+ participants who did not identify as minority reported fewer persons they trust. CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of persons who identified as LGB+ was twice as large as the proportion of persons who identified as a minority based on their sexual orientation. LGB+ persons show poorer mental health compared to heterosexual persons. This difference was unrelated to minority stress, sociodemographic differences, minority identification, or the importance attached to minority characteristics.

Minority Identity, Othering-Based Stress, and Sexual Violence.

BACKGROUND: Some (minority) groups (MGs) are more vulnerable to sexual violence (SV) exposure than others. Othering-based stress (OBS) may mediate the relationship between minority identification and SV. This study aims to assess the prevalence of SV in different MGs to explore the relationship between minority identification and SV, to investigate whether belonging to multiple MGs moderates this relationship, and to explore OBS SV moderation for different MGs. METHOD: Through an online survey administered to a nationally representative sample in Belgium, data was collected from 4632 persons, of whom 21.01% self-identified as belonging to a MG (SI-Minority). SV prevalence was measured using behaviorally specific questions based on the WHO definition of SV. SI-Minority participants received an additional scale on OBS. RESULTS: SI-Minority participants reported more SV victimization compared to the non-minorities. However, this increased risk was not moderated by minority identification but linked to the socio-demographic SV risk markers common to minority individuals. Multiple-minority participants were found more at risk of SV compared to single-minority respondents. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, pan-/omnisexual, asexual, and other non-heterosexual (LGB+) participants were found more at risk than heterosexual participants. OBS was found to be significantly correlated to SV in sexual and gender minorities and in cultural minorities. CONCLUSIONS: This study contributes to our understanding of the relationship between minority identification, OBS, and SV. Studying both specific and common SV vulnerabilities and outcomes within specific societal subgroups and the general population may inform policy makers when allocating resources to those interventions with the largest societal impact.

The impact of strict measures as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic on the spatial pattern of the demand for police: case study Antwerp (Belgium).

COVID-19 impacts the daily lives of millions of people. This radical change in our daily activities affected many aspects of life, but acted as well as a natural experiment for research into the spatial distribution of 911 calls. We analyse the impact of the COVID-19 measures on the spatial pattern of police interventions. Crime is not uniformly distributed across street segments, but how does COVID-19 affect these spatial patterns? To this end, Gini coefficients are calculated and a proportion differences spatial point pattern test is applied to compare the similarity of the patterns of incidents before, during, and after the first lockdown in Antwerp, Belgium. With only essential mobility being allowed, the emergency call pattern has not significantly changed before, during or after this lockdown, however, a qualitative shift in police officer's daily work may have had an effect on the daily operation of the Antwerp police force.

"Too Grey To Be True?" Sexual Violence in Older Adults: A Critical Interpretive Synthesis of Evidence.

Sexual violence (SV) is an important public health issue with a major impact on victims and their peers, offspring and community. However, SV in older adults is under-researched. This paper aims to establish the prevalence and nature of SV in older adults in Europe, link this with existing policies and health care workers' response to sexual health needs in older age, and critically revise the currently used frameworks in public health research. To fill this gap in the literature, we applied a Critical Interpretative Synthesis (CIS) approach. The CIS approach uses techniques from grounded theory and processes from systematic review. It allows to critically interpret key findings from both academic as well as grey literature, engendering theory refining. In the first phase of purposive sampling, we conducted a systematic review of academic sources and included 14 references. The cut-off age used to define old age varied between 60 and 70 years old among the included studies. Subsequently we added another 14 references in the second phase of theoretical sampling. We ultimately included 16 peer-reviewed articles and 12 documents from the grey literature. The CIS results demonstrate that knowledge of SV in older adults is still limited. The current research suggests that SV in older adults rarely occurs, however, prevalence rates are likely to be underestimated because of methodological shortcomings. The complexity of SV in older adults is not acknowledged in ongoing research due to the conflation of SV with other types of violence. Information on specific risk factors and about assailants committing SV in old age is absent. Policy documents dealing with sexual and reproductive health, rights and ageing make no mention of SV in older adults. In clinical practice, the sexual health needs of older adults often remain unmet. In conclusion, our findings suggest that older adults are forgotten in prevention and response to SV. Greater awareness about this topic could contribute to a revision of current policies and health care practices, leading to more tailored care for older victims of SV.

The effectiveness of DNA databases in relation to their purpose and content: A systematic review.

Different stakeholders use forensic DNA databases for different purposes; for example, law enforcement agencies use them as an investigative tool to identify suspects, and criminologists use them to study the offending patterns of unidentified suspects. A number of researchers have already studied their effectiveness, but none has performed an overview of the relevant literature. Such an overview could help future researchers and policymakers by evaluating their creation, use and expansion. Using a systematic review, this article synthesizes the most relevant research into the effectiveness of forensic DNA databases published between January 1985 and March 2018. We report the results of the selected studies and look deeper into the evidence by evaluating the relationship between the purpose, content, and effectiveness of DNA databases, three inseparable elements in this type of research. We classify the studies by purposes: (i) detection and clearance; (ii) deterrence; and (iii) criminological scientific knowledge. Each category uses different measurements to evaluate effectiveness. The majority of these studies report positive results, supporting the assumption that DNA databases are an effective tool for the police, society, and criminologists.

Are DNA data a valid source to study the spatial behavior of unknown offenders?

Studying the spatial behaviour of unknown offenders (i.e. undetected offenders) is difficult, because police recorded crime data do not contain information about these offenders. Recently, forensic DNA data has been used to study unknown offenders. However, DNA data are only a subset of the crimes committed by unknown offenders stored in police recorded crime data. To establish the suitability of DNA data for studying the spatial offending behaviour of unknown offenders, we examine the concentration and spatial similarity of detected but unsolved crimes in police recorded crime data (N = 181,483) and DNA data (N = 1913) over 27 Belgian judicial districts for four crime types. We established spatial similarity for certain crime types (in some districts). This offers opportunities for DNA data to be used to study unknown offenders' spatial offending behaviour. Implications for theory and research are discussed.

Prevalence of Sexual Violence in Migrants, Applicants for International Protection, and Refugees in Europe: A Critical Interpretive Synthesis of the Evidence.

(1) Background: Sexual violence (SV) is a major public health problem, with negative socio-economic, physical, mental, sexual, and reproductive health consequences. Migrants, applicants for international protection, and refugees (MARs) are vulnerable to SV. Since many European countries are seeing high migratory pressure, the development of prevention strategies and care paths focusing on victimised MARs is highly needed. To this end, this study reviews evidence on the prevalence of SV among MAR groups in Europe and the challenges encountered in research on this topic. (2) Methods: A critical interpretive synthesis of 25 peer-reviewed academic studies and 22 relevant grey literature documents was conducted based on a socio-ecological model. (3) Results: Evidence shows that SV is highly frequent in MARs in Europe, yet comparison with other groups is still difficult. Methodologically and ethically sound representative studies comparing between populations are still lacking. Challenges in researching SV in MARs are located at the intrapersonal, interpersonal, community, societal, and policy levels. (4) Conclusions: Future research should start with a clear definition of the concerned population and acts of SV to generate comparable data. Participatory qualitative research approaches could be applied to better grasp the complexity of interplaying determinants of SV in MARs.

The role and experiences of family members during the rehabilitation of mentally ill offenders.

Taking care of a family member with a mental illness imposes a burden on various aspects of family life. This burden may be enhanced if the mentally ill individual has a criminal history. This paper aims to summarize the scientific literature dealing with the experiences, needs and burdens of families of mentally ill offenders. We aim to explore the roles that family members play in the rehabilitation of their relative and review the families' needs and burdens. Finally, we aim to investigate whether or not the family strengths are considered in the literature. A literature search in line with the PRISMA statement for systematic reviews and with the recommendations for an integrative review was performed in the ISI Web of Science, PubMed, Elsevier Science Direct and ProQuest databases. Limited research has been carried out into the experiences, needs and burdens of families of mentally ill offenders, with only eight studies fulfilling the inclusion criteria. Families of mentally ill offenders experience more stress than those of mentally ill individuals with no judicial involvement. This is because of the fact that these family members have to deal with both mental health services and judicial systems. The eight retrieved studies focus on needs and burdens, with little reference to strengths or capabilities. The review has highlighted the need for further research into the needs and burdens of families with mentally ill offenders, with a focus on strengths rather than an exclusively problem-oriented perspective. It is important that families become more involved in the health and social care of their relatives to avoid being considered 'second patients'.

Protecting the fair trial rights of mentally disordered defendants in criminal proceedings: Exploring the need for further EU action.

Using the new legal basis provided by the Lisbon Treaty, the Council of the European Union has endorsed the 2009 Procedural Roadmap for strengthening the procedural rights of suspected or accused persons in criminal proceedings. This Roadmap has so far resulted in six measures from which specific procedural minimum standards have been and will be adopted or negotiated. So far, only Measure E directly touches on the specific issue of vulnerable persons. This Measure has recently produced a tentative result through a Commission Recommendation on procedural safeguards for vulnerable persons in criminal proceedings. This contribution aims to discuss the need for the introduction of binding minimum standards throughout Europe to provide additional protection for mentally disordered defendants. The paper will examine whether or not the member states adhere to existing fundamental norms and standards in this context, and whether the application of these norms and standards should be made more uniform. For this purpose, the procedural situation of mentally disordered defendants in Belgium and England and Wales will be thoroughly explored. The research establishes that Belgian law is unsatisfactory in the light of the Strasbourg case law, and that the situation in practice in England and Wales indicates not only that there is justifiable doubt about whether fundamental principles are always adhered to, but also that these principles should become more anchored in everyday practice. It will therefore be argued that there is a need for putting Measure E into practice. The Commission Recommendation, though only suggestive, may serve as a necessary and inspirational vehicle to improve the procedural rights of mentally disordered defendants and to ensure that member states are able to cooperate within the mutual recognition framework without being challenged on the grounds that they are collaborating with peers who do not respect defendants' fundamental fair trial rights. Throughout this contribution the term 'defendant' will be used, and no difference will be made in terminology between suspected and accused persons. This contribution only covers the situation of mentally disordered adult defendants.

Medical confidentiality and partner notification in cases of sexually transmissible infections in Belgium.

Research has shown that HIV-positive patients sometimes refuse to take precautionary measures against sexual transmission as well as to notify their sexual partner(s) of their status. Faced with such a situation, physicians find themselves in a dilemma as they are forced to choose between honouring their duty of professional confidentiality and protecting their patients' partner(s). Recent advice from the Belgian Medical Council (BMC) for the first time accepts that physicians can exceptionally, and under certain conditions, invoke necessity to breach confidentiality and inform usual and occasional sexual partners of HIV-infected patients who refuse to take precautions against transmission. This article sketches the ethical evolution of this position from 1987 up to now in Belgium, and examines whether or not the BMC's opinion on the matter corresponds to the applicable substantive criminal law provisions and whether or not partner notification could also be defended for other sexually transmissible infections (STIs). A case study of the situation in Belgium illustrates how discussions about STIs can deeply influence the evolution of legal and ethical rules about medical confidentiality.

Mentally ill offenders in prison: the Belgian case.

According to the EUPRIS-study on mental health in prisons (2007), available data on mental disorders in prison are scarce. Therefore, this study aims at summarizing and discussing the available knowledge on incarcerated mentally ill offenders concerning: (1) the screening and assessment for detecting mental health; (2) the psychiatric expertise in order to evaluate the mental status; and (3) the development and provision of forensic psychiatric treatment and care. These findings will be applied to the current situation in Belgium, which is a particularly interesting case. Belgium is currently facing difficulties concerning a large population of interned mentally ill offenders residing in correctional establishments. Implications with regard to the penal code, general or mental health legislation, screening, assessment, and treatment could deliver interesting viewpoints on how this problem could be tackled more effectively. Therefore, the findings will be discussed with reference to the international scientific and policy debate, focusing on ethical implications.

Security risks in nuclear waste management: Exceptionalism, opaqueness and vulnerability.

This paper analyses some potential security risks, concerning terrorism or more mundane forms of crime, such as fraud, in management of nuclear waste using a PEST scan (of political, economic, social and technical issues) and some insights of criminologists on crime prevention. Nuclear waste arises as spent fuel from ongoing energy generation or other nuclear operations, operational contamination or emissions, and decommissioning of obsolescent facilities. In international and EU political contexts, nuclear waste management is a sensitive issue, regulated specifically as part of the nuclear industry as well as in terms of hazardous waste policies. The industry involves state, commercial and mixed public-private bodies. The social and cultural dimensions--risk, uncertainty, and future generations--resonate more deeply here than in any other aspect of waste management. The paper argues that certain tendencies in regulation of the industry, claimed to be justified on security grounds, are decreasing transparency and veracity of reporting, opening up invisible spaces for management frauds, and in doing allowing a culture of impunity in which more serious criminal or terrorist risks could arise. What is needed is analysis of this 'exceptional' industry in terms of the normal cannons of risk assessment - a task that this paper begins.