New tick records with notes on rickettsial infection from the wildlife of the state of Espírito Santo, southeastern Brazil.

This work aimed to report ticks infesting the wildlife among 15 municipalities of the state of Espírito Santo between 2016 and 2021, within the Atlantic Forest biome of southeastern Brazil. A total of 576 tick specimens (187 males, 56 females, 149 nymphs, and 184 larvae) was collected from 41 species of wild vertebrates (two reptiles, nine mammals, and 30 birds). Ticks were identified by morphological or molecular methods into 18 species, being 12, four, one and one of the genera Amblyomma, Ixodes, Rhipicephalus and Ornithodoros, respectively. Amblyomma rotundatum was the only species collected from reptiles. Ticks collected from mammals were identified as Amblyomma brasiliense, Amblyomma calcaratum, Amblyomma dubitatum, Amblyomma longirostre, Amblyomma nodosum, Amblyomma pacae, Amblyomma sculptum, Amblyomma varium and Rhipicephalus microplus. Amblyomma sculptum was the species found on the widest variety of hosts, collected from four mammal orders and five bird orders. Passeriformes birds were infested by Amblyomma fuscum, A. longirostre (also found on non- passerine birds), A. nodosum, Amblyomma parkeri, Amblyomma romarioi, A. varium and Ixodes loricatus. An adult female of Ixodes rio was collected from a Piciformes bird. Seabirds of the order Procellariiformes were infested by Ixodes percavatus sensu lato and Ixodes uriae. The argasid Ornithodoros capensis was collected from an offshore metallic platform that was used by Suliformes seabirds. Rickettsial agents of the spotted fever group, Rickettsia amblyommatis and Rickettsia sp. strain Pampulha, were detected in the ticks A. longirostre [from the Paraguayan hairy dwarf porcupine (Coendou spinosus)] and A. dubitatum [from the capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris)], respectively. The following nine tick species are reported for the first time in Espírito Santo state: A. calcaratum, A. fuscum, A. pacae, A. parkeri, A. romarioi, I. loricatus, I. rio, I. uriae, and O. capensis. Although it is also the first report of I. uriae in Brazil, we do not consider it established in the country. Multiple new tick-host associations are reported in the present study.

Increased prevalence of canine echinococcosis a decade after the discontinuation of a governmental deworming program in Tierra del Fuego, Southern Chile.

Hydatid disease is a neglected zoonotic parasitic disease caused by cysts of the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus. Canids, especially domestic dogs, are definitive hosts of the parasite and are the most pragmatic targets for control programs. A governmental dog deworming campaign was established in 1979 to control hydatidosis in southern Chile, which succeeded in reducing the prevalence of canine echinococcosis in Tierra del Fuego province from 68.4% (in 1978) to 1.2% (in 2002). In 2004, however, the program was dismantled to reduce costs, and since then, no follow-up echinococcosis monitoring has been conducted. We surveyed 356 domestic dogs and interviewed owners or workers at 45 ranches in Chilean Tierra del Fuego during the summer of 2015-2016. Faecal flotation was employed to detect Taeniidae eggs, and PCR was used to test faecal samples for Echinococcus granulosus. Taeniidae eggs and Echinococcus sp. DNA were detected in the faeces of 45.4% (147/324) and 6.9% (23/331) of dogs, respectively. Infrequent dog deworming and the presence of culpeo foxes (Lycalopex culpaeus) were significant predictors of the prevalence of Echinococcus sp. DNA and Taeniidae eggs. Furthermore, the presence of introduced chilla foxes (Lycalopex griseus), the municipality, and several operational characteristics of ranches (number of sheep, frequency of sheep slaughter, number of dogs, frequency of removal of dog faeces, feeding of dogs with sheep viscera) were also predictive of the prevalence of Taeniidae eggs. Our findings reveal an ongoing risk of echinococcosis with pathogen maintenance in ranch dogs in Chilean Tierra del Fuego, and in the absence of adequate control programmes, there is a tangible risk of re-emergence of hydatid disease as a public health concern.

H6N8 avian influenza virus in Antarctic seabirds demonstrates connectivity between South America and Antarctica.

Wild aquatic birds are the natural reservoirs of avian influenza viruses (AIVs). It is estimated that 100 million seabirds live in the Antarctic Peninsula and adjacent islands, regularly encountering migratory birds that use the islands to nest. Between 2010 and 2013, we collected samples from 865 seabirds in Elephant, King George and Livingston islands, around Antarctica Peninsula: chinstrap penguin (n = 143); gentoo penguin (n = 208); Adelie penguin (n = 46); brown skua (n = 90); Cape petrel (n = 115) and southern giant petrel (n = 263). Serum (n = 673) samples were analysed by competitive ELISA and swabs (n = 614) were tested by one step real-time RT-PCR for avian influenza virus (AIV). Sera from 30 chinstrap penguins, 76 brown skuas and a single Adelie penguin were seropositive for AIV. Thirteen swab samples were AIV positive by RT-PCR, and complete genome sequences of H6N8 AIVs isolated from brown skua and chinstrap penguin in 2011 were obtained. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that all gene segments of the H6N8 viruses were closely related to Argentinian and Chilean AIVs. The prevalence with which we identified evidence for AIVs infection in various Antarctic seabirds suggest viral circulation in Antarctic avifauna and interspecies viral transmission in the sub-Antarctic region.

Blood parasites of passerines in the Brazilian Pampas and their implications for a potential population supplementation program for the endangered Yellow Cardinal (Gubernatrix cristata).

Espinilho savanna ("seasonal steppe savanna") is a unique vegetation formation of the Pampas biome that is found near the tri-border of Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. The Yellow Cardinal (Gubernatrix cristata) is a flagship species of this ecosystem, but it is classified as "critically endangered" in Brazil due to habitat loss and poaching for the illegal trade. Population supplementation through the release of individuals that were captive-bred or apprehended by authorities from the illegal trade has been considered as a conservation strategy for this species; however, the risk of pathogen introduction is a critical concern. We used microscopy and molecular methods to investigate the occurrence of blood parasites in wild passerines (n = 64, including three Yellow Cardinals) at Espinilho State Park, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, and in captive Yellow Cardinals (n = 30) at three facilities in Brazil. Haemosporidian parasites were detected in the blood smears of 10.9% of the wild passerines, comprising the morphospecies Haemoproteus erythrogravidus in Rufous-collared Sparrow (Zonotrichia capensis), H. quiscalus in Grayish Baywing (Agelaioides badius), and H. tyranni in Great Kiskadee (Pitangus sulphuratus); these are the southernmost records for these morphospecies and their first record for the Pampas biome. No haemosporidian parasites were detected in the blood smears of the Yellow Cardinals, wild or captive. Microfilariae were detected in the blood smears of 14.1% of the wild passerines, including all wild Yellow Cardinals, and in 43.3% of captive Yellow Cardinals. Trypanosoma sp. was detected in the blood smear of one captive Yellow Cardinal. Nested PCR and gene sequencing of the cyt-b gene of Haemoproteus/Plasmodium was used to test a subset of wild passerines and captive Yellow Cardinals, allowing for the molecular barcoding of H. quiscalus lineage AGEBAD04 and H. tyranni lineage PITSUL01; additionally, DNA identical to that of lineage PITSUL01 was detected in the blood of one captive Yellow Cardinal. This study provides valuable data to support the conservation management of the Yellow Cardinal and other threatened passerines from the Pampas and highlights the need for further studies on the epidemiology and pathology of filarioid worms and trypanosomes in passerines from this biome.

A new haemosporidian parasite from the Red-legged Seriema Cariama cristata (Cariamiformes, Cariamidae).

Haemoproteids (Haemosporida, Haemoproteidae) are a diverse group of avian blood parasites that are transmitted by hematophagous dipterans. In this study, we describe Haemoproteus pulcher sp. nov. from a Red-legged Seriema (Cariama cristata) in southeast Brazil. Analysis of the mitochondrial cytb gene indicates this parasite is closely related to Haemoproteus catharti (from Turkey Vulture, Cathartes aura) and the unidentified haemosporidian lineages PSOOCH01 (from Pale-winged Trumpeter, Psophia leucoptera) and MYCAME08 (from Wood Stork, Mycteria americana). This group of parasites appears to represent an evolutionary lineage that is distinct from other Haemoproteus spp., being instead more closely related to Haemocystidium spp. (from reptiles), Plasmodium spp. (from reptiles, birds, and mammals) and other mammal-infecting haemosporidians (Nycteria, Polychromophilus, and Hepatocystis). Current evidence suggests that parasites of this newly discovered evolutionary lineage may be endemic to the Americas, but further studies are necessary to clarify their taxonomy, life cycle, vectors, hosts, geographic distribution and host health effects. Additionally, it should be borne in mind that some PCR protocols targeting the cytb gene might not reliably detect H. pulcher due to low primer affinity.

Ingestion of plastics and other debris by coastal and pelagic birds along the coast of Espírito Santo, Eastern Brazil.

Although the ingestion of plastics and other anthropogenic debris by seabirds is a global problem, few studies have employed standardized protocols to quantify and classify the debris ingested by seabirds in the Southwest Atlantic. We evaluated the ingestion of marine debris (items >0.1 mm) by 126 coastal and pelagic birds (19 species) along the coast of Espírito Santo, Eastern Brazil. Debris were found in 30% of birds examined (11 species). Particles <1 mm accounted for 35% of all debris items. Most ingested debris were plastics (97%). Ingestion of >0.1 g of plastic debris was recorded in five species: Atlantic yellow-nosed albatrosses (Thalassarche chlororhynchos), Cory's shearwaters (Calonectris borealis), Manx shearwaters (Puffinus puffinus), brown boobies (Sula leucogaster), and Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus). Our findings suggest that the ingestion of marine debris, especially plastics, is a common problem for coastal and pelagic birds in tropical Southwest Atlantic waters.

Successful Treatment of Capture Myopathy and Satellite Transmitter Injury in an Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross (Thalassarche chlororhynchos).

An Atlantic yellow-nosed albatross (Thalassarche chlororhynchos) was found on shore 3 days after having been captured at sea by researchers. It presented very lethargic, moderately dehydrated, and in poor body condition. It was mildly hypothermic, with moderate pediculosis, and dark malodorous feces with yellow urates. The bird had a 48-g satellite transmitter attached with a backpack-style chest harness, which caused an ulcerative lesion on the interscapular area. The bird was severely anemic (packed cell volume, 18%), and plasma chemistry results were suggestive of a severe rhabdomyolysis (aspartate transaminase, 3620 U/L; creatine kinase, 100 400 U/L). We hypothesized that capture myopathy occurred because of a combination of capture stress and prolonged physical restraint by researchers, stress associated with repeated attempts by the bird to remove the satellite-transmitter harness, and a lengthy road transport to the rehabilitation center. A treatment protocol, which relied on a combination of aggressive fluid therapy, selenium, vitamins E and B12, and multivitamin supplementation, was administered after the initial physical assessment of the albatross. Isoflurane inhalation anesthesia was used to minimize stress associated with the performed medical procedures (eg, physical examination, removal of the satellite transmitter harness, blood collection, and wound management). Measures were adopted while the bird was hospitalized to reduce stress (eg, quiet and comfortable environment with visual barriers and restricting handling of the patient to experienced staff). Clinical and hematological monitoring was used to assess the patient's condition as the bird gradually recovered while hospitalized. The albatross was successfully released 28 days after the initial presentation, suggesting that the medical protocol employed in this case may be useful for the treatment of capture myopathy in albatrosses and other birds.

Lead exposure in dogs fed game meat and offal from culled invasive species in El Palmar National Park, Argentina.

This is the first field study to evaluate lead exposure in dogs fed game meat and offal and, to our knowledge, the first study exploring associations between game consumption and dog health status. We quantified lead concentrations in blood and hair and haematological parameters of 31 dogs fed game meat and offal from wild boar (Sus scrofa) and axis deer (Axis axis) culled with lead ammunition in El Palmar National Park, Argentina. Despite variable weekly frequency in game consumption, dogs had detectable blood and hair lead levels, demonstrating recent and chronic exposure. Lead geometric mean and SD were 18.91 ± 346.85 µg/dL w.w. in blood (range = 0.53-216.58), and 0.721 ± 6.444 µg/gr d.w. in hair (range = 0.007-34.800). Hair lead levels were relatively low in most samples, except for the oldest dog which had an atypically high value concurrent with anaemia, a common outcome of chronic lead exposure. Dog's owner was significantly predictive of both blood and hair lead levels, which reflects the same feeding patterns for all dogs owned by the same person. Body condition was associated with hair lead, with dogs in good condition presenting higher lead levels. This could be related to greater game consumption by those dogs, resulting in higher lead ingestion. Dogs fed game meat and offal at very low or low frequency (≤4 times per week) showed higher blood lead levels, suggesting there might not be a risk-free frequency for game provision to dogs. Considering the risks of dietary lead exposure, avoiding feeding dogs lead-killed game and replacing lead ammunition with non-toxic alternatives are recommended. This would allow using hunted game as a valuable food resource without unnecessary risk for the health of consumers and the environment.

Lead exposure in consumers of culled invasive alien mammals in El Palmar National Park, Argentina.

Consumption of meat from animals hunted with Pb ammunition can cause toxic accumulation with consequent health risks, even if relatively small amounts are consumed in each exposure. In El Palmar National Park, Argentina, invasive alien mammals, wild boar (Sus scrofa) and axis deer (Axis axis), are culled with Pb ammunition and their meat is consumed. In this study, we evaluated blood Pb concentrations in 58 consumers of culled game and examined Pb exposure risk according to their demographics, duty, and consumption habits. Likewise, the likelihood of exposure was evaluated by quantifying Pb concentrations in meat samples of seven culled axis deer. Twenty-seven participants (46%) had detectable blood Pb levels (limit of detection = 3.3 µg/dL), with an average 4.75 ± 1.35 µg/dL (geometric mean ± geometric S.D.); the average for all participants was 3.25 ± 1.51 µg/dL. Blood Pb concentrations were significantly higher in hunters, in participants who reported consuming game meat more than 5 times per week, and in participants who reported frequently consuming cured game meat (compared to cooked or pickled). Pb concentration varied significantly along the trajectory of the bullet in deer muscle, being highest at mid-point but with detectable Pb levels even in distant tissue samples (control), suggesting potential for dietary intake by consumers. These findings provide evidence of Pb exposure risk in consumers and emphasize the relevance of replacing Pb ammunition with non-toxic alternatives. This change would reduce dietary exposure in frequent consumers and allow the use of game meat as safe food for people whilst eliminating collateral risks to wild animals and the environment.

Arthropod parasites of Antarctic and Subantarctic birds and pinnipeds: A review of host-parasite associations.

Due to its cold and dry climate and scarcity of ice-free land, Antarctica has one of the most extreme environments on our planet. To survive in the Antarctic region, parasitic arthropods must either remain closely associated with their hosts throughout the entire life cycle or develop physiological adaptations to survive in the terrestrial habitat while their hosts are away foraging at sea or overwintering at lower latitudes. Forty-eight species of birds and seven species of pinnipeds breed in the Antarctic region, with 158 species/subspecies of parasitic arthropods recorded thus far, comprising: sucking lice (Echinophthiriidae), chewing lice (Menoponidae, Philopteridae), fleas (Ceratophyllidae, Pygiopsyllidae, Rhopalopsyllidae), pentastomes (Reighardiidae), hard ticks (Ixodidae), nest-associated haematophagous mites (Laelapidae), nasal mites (Halarachnidae, Rhinonyssidae) and feather mites (Alloptidae, Avenzoariidae, Xolalgidae, Freyanidae). In this review, we provide an updated compilation of the available information on the host-parasite associations of arthropods infesting birds and pinnipeds in the Antarctic region, and discuss some over-arching ecological patterns and gaps of knowledge.

Determinants of external and blood parasite load in African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) admitted for rehabilitation.

We investigate the factors associated with the occurrence and abundance of external and blood parasites in African penguins (Spheniscus demersus), an endangered seabird that breeds exclusively on the coasts of Namibia and South Africa. External parasites were collected using the dust-ruffling method from 171 African Penguins admitted at a rehabilitation facility in the Western Cape, South Africa. Additionally, blood smears were obtained upon admission and weekly during rehabilitation and examined for blood parasites. Fleas Parapsyllus longicornis humboldti, ticks Ornithodoros capensis and lice Austrogoniodes demersus were recovered from 93, 63 and 40%, respectively, of the penguins upon admission to the centre. Rescue location and age group were identified as significant determinants of flea abundance, whereas month of admission was a significant determinant of tick abundance. Blood parasites were also common on admission, with Babesia being the most frequent (46% prevalence) whereas Borrelia was recorded sporadically (1.2%) and Plasmodium was recorded once. The prevalence and abundance of ticks on admission was positively associated with Babesia infection on admission. Our findings demonstrate the variability and contributing factor of parasite infections in an endangered species of penguin, and highlight the need for additional research on the parasite-host dynamics involving these potential disease vectors.

SEROLOGICAL SURVEY FOR SELECT INFECTIOUS AGENTS IN WILD MAGELLANIC PENGUINS (SPHENISCUS MAGELLANICUS) IN ARGENTINA, 1994-2008.

Despite being the most numerous penguin species in South America, exposure of the Magellanic Penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) to pathogens has not yet been thoroughly assessed. We collected serum from 1,058 Magellanic Penguins at 10 breeding colonies along the entire latitudinal range of this species in Argentina. The work spanned 10 breeding seasons over 15 yr (1994-2008). Sera were tested for antibodies to select infectious agents. Antibodies reacting against 16 pathogens were detected (seroprevalence): Aspergillus sp. (15.1%), Chlamydia psittaci (6.5%), Salmonella Pullorum (3.1%), Salmonella Typhimurium (81.3%), Aviadenovirus sp. (18.1%), Duck atadenovirus A (23.6%), Anatid herpesvirus 1 (0.7%), Avian orthoreovirus (3.3%), Avian coronavirus M41 (43.5%), Avian coronavirus C46 (59.8%), Avian coronavirus A99 (37.4%), Avian coronavirus JMK (40.2%), Tremovirus A (0.3%), Avian avulavirus 1 (44.0%), Avian avulavirus 2 (43.8%), and Avian avulavirus 3 (46.6%). No antibodies were detected against nine infectious agents: Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1, Gallid alphaherpesvirus 2, Infectious bursal disease virus, Avastrovirus 2, West Nile virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, and Influenza A virus. While restricted by limitations inherent to serological methods, our results provide baseline knowledge for a key species in the South Atlantic Ocean. This information is valuable for adaptive conservation management in a time of increasing environmental stressors affecting the Patagonian Sea, one of the world's richest pelagic seabird communities.

Epidemiology, hematology, and unusual morphological characteristics of Plasmodium during an avian malaria outbreak in penguins in Brazil.

Avian malaria is a mosquito-borne disease caused by Plasmodium spp. protozoa, and penguins are considered particularly susceptible to this disease, developing rapid outbreaks with potentially high mortality. We report on an outbreak of avian malaria in Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) at a rehabilitation center in Espírito Santo, southeast Brazil. In August and September 2015, a total of 89 Magellanic penguins (87 juveniles and 2 adults) received care at Institute of Research and Rehabilitation of Marine Animals. Over a period of 2 weeks, Plasmodium infections were identified in eight individuals (9.0%), four of which died (mortality = 4.5%, lethality = 50%). Blood smears and sequencing of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene revealed the presence of Plasmodium lutzi SPMAG06, Plasmodium elongatum GRW06, Plasmodium sp. PHPAT01, Plasmodium sp. SPMAG10, and Plasmodium cathemerium (sequencing not successful). Two unusual morphological features were observed in individuals infected with lineage SPMAG06: (a) lack of clumping of pigment granules and (b) presence of circulating exoerythrocytic meronts. Hematological results (packed cell volume, plasma total solids, complete blood cell counts) of positive individuals showed differences from those of negative individuals depending on the lineages, but there was no overarching pattern consistently observed for all Plasmodium spp. The epidemiology of the outbreak and the phylogeography of the parasite lineages detected in this study support the notion that malarial infections in penguins undergoing rehabilitation in Brazil are the result of the spillover inoculation by plasmodia that circulate in the local avifauna, especially Passeriformes.

Comparative morphometric evaluation of hepatic hemosiderosis in wild Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) infected with different Plasmodium spp. subgenera / Avaliação morfométrica comparativa da hemossiderose hepática em pinguins-de-Magalhães (Spheniscus magellanicus) de vida livre infectados por diferentes subgêneros de Plasmodium spp

Abstract Avian malaria is one of the most important diseases of captive penguins. We employed morphometric techniques to evaluate hepatic hemosiderosis in rehabilitating wild Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) that were negative (n = 9) or naturally infected by different subgenera of Plasmodium spp. (n = 24), according with: Plasmodium subgenera (Haemamoeba, Huffia, Other lineages, and Unidentified lineages), severity of Plasmodium histopathological lesions, and concurrent diseases, age class (juvenile or adult plumage), sex (male, female or not determined), body score (emaciated, thin, good, excellent, not available), molt, presence or absence of oil contamination upon admission, iron supplementation, and rehabilitation center. The percentage of the area occupied by hemosiderin was called 'Index of Hepatic Hemosiderosis (IHH)'. Plasmodium-positive females presented significantly higher IHH values (17.53 ± 12.95%) than males (7.20 ± 4.25%; p = 0.041). We observed higher levels of congestion (p = 0.0182) and pneumonia (p = 0.0250) severity between Unidentified lineages vs. Huffia. We believe that the hepatic hemosiderosis observed in this study was multifactorial, the result of pathological processes caused by malaria, molting, hemoglobin and myoglobin catabolism during migration, anemia, concomitant diseases, and iron supplementation, all possibly potentiated by decreased liver mass. Further studies are needed to clarify the mechanisms of these hypotheses.

Resumo Malária aviária é uma das mais relevantes doenças em pinguins cativos. Foram aplicadas técnicas morfométricas para avaliar a hemossiderose hepática em pinguins-de-Magalhães (Spheniscus magellanicus ) de vida livre em reabilitação negativos (n = 9) e naturalmente infectados por diferentes subgêneros de Plasmodium spp. (n = 24), quanto a: subgênero de Plasmodium (Haemamoeba , Huffia, Outras Linhagens, e Linhagens não identificadas), severidade das lesões histopatológicas causadas por Plasmodium e doenças concomitantes, faixa etária (plumagem juvenil ou adulta), sexo (macho, fêmea, indeterminado), condição corporal (emaciado, magro, bom, excelente, indisponível), muda, presença/ausência de óleo a admissão, suplementação de ferro, e centro de reabilitação. A porcentagem da área ocupada por hemossiderina foi denominada "Índice de Hemossiderose Hepática (IHH)". Fêmeas Plasmodium -positivas apresentaram IHH significativamente mais elevado que machos, respectivamente, 17,53 ± 12,95% e 7,20 ± 4,25% (p = 0,041). Níveis mais elevados de congestão (p = 0,0182) e pneumonia (p = 0,0250) foram observados entre Linhagens não identificadas vs. Huffia. Possivelmente, a hemossiderose hepática observada nesse estudo seja multifatorial, resultado de processos patológicos causados por malária, muda, catabolismo de hemoglobina e mioglobina durante a migração, anemia, doenças concomitantes e suplementação de ferro, potencialmente intensificados por massa hepática reduzida. Estudos complementares são necessários para esclarecer os mecanismos de tais hipóteses.

Comparative morphometric evaluation of hepatic hemosiderosis in wild Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) infected with different Plasmodium spp. subgenera.

Avian malaria is one of the most important diseases of captive penguins. We employed morphometric techniques to evaluate hepatic hemosiderosis in rehabilitating wild Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) that were negative (n = 9) or naturally infected by different subgenera of Plasmodium spp. (n = 24), according with: Plasmodium subgenera (Haemamoeba, Huffia, Other lineages, and Unidentified lineages), severity of Plasmodium histopathological lesions, and concurrent diseases, age class (juvenile or adult plumage), sex (male, female or not determined), body score (emaciated, thin, good, excellent, not available), molt, presence or absence of oil contamination upon admission, iron supplementation, and rehabilitation center. The percentage of the area occupied by hemosiderin was called 'Index of Hepatic Hemosiderosis (IHH)'. Plasmodium-positive females presented significantly higher IHH values (17.53 ± 12.95%) than males (7.20 ± 4.25%; p = 0.041). We observed higher levels of congestion (p = 0.0182) and pneumonia (p = 0.0250) severity between Unidentified lineages vs. Huffia. We believe that the hepatic hemosiderosis observed in this study was multifactorial, the result of pathological processes caused by malaria, molting, hemoglobin and myoglobin catabolism during migration, anemia, concomitant diseases, and iron supplementation, all possibly potentiated by decreased liver mass. Further studies are needed to clarify the mechanisms of these hypotheses.

Nasal mites (Mesostigmata: Rhinonyssidae) in African penguins (Spheniscus demersus).

Rhinonyssids are obligate haematophagous mites that parasitize the nasal cavity of vertebrates, and occur in a wide range of birds worldwide. Two species of nasal mites are known to occur in penguins: Rhinonyssus sphenisci, which has been recorded from Humboldt and Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus humboldti and S. magellanicus, respectively), and Rhinonyssus schelli, which has been recorded in Adélie and Gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae and P. papua, respectively). We examined the nasal cavity of African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) that died while under care at a rehabilitation centre (N = 40) or that were found dead at breeding colonies (N = 67). Nasal mites were found in the nasal cavity and/or paranasal of sinuses of 21 penguins, some of which had signs of mild-to-moderate sinusitis. Prevalence was higher in juveniles (29%) and adults (27%) than in chicks (10%). Mean intensity was 5.9 ± 12.9 mites per infected host (range 1-60). The mites presented morphological characteristics that were at times consistent with either R. sphenisci or R. schelli, and therefore we conservatively classified them as 'R. sphenisci sensu lato'. Our morphometric results raise the question of whether the specific status of R. schelli is justified.

Empirical Primaquine Treatment of Avian Babesiosis in Seabirds.

Babesia species are tickborne hemoprotozoans. Although experiments have shown that primaquine is highly effective in the treatment of Babesia species infections in mammals, this drug has not been widely used for the treatment of avian babesiosis. Consequently, the treatment of this disease for avian patients has traditionally relied on an empirically established imidocarb treatment. In this study, the authors examined the efficacy of primaquine as a treatment alternative for avian babesiosis (Babesia peircei and Babesia ugwidiensis) in seabirds. Retrospective analysis was performed on the medical records and blood smears of 446 B peircei-positive African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) and 41 B ugwidiensis-positive Cape cormorants (Phalacrocorax capensis) admitted for rehabilitation at the Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds (SANCCOB, Cape Town, South Africa). Treatment with primaquine (1 mg/kg PO q24h for 10 days) was effective in rapidly and markedly decreasing the proportion of Babesia-positive blood smears in African penguins and Cape cormorants. No regurgitation, loss of appetite, or any other signs after administration of primaquine were observed during the study period. The use of primaquine can be a particularly advantageous treatment alternative for avian babesiosis in circumstances in which it is not possible to determine confidently whether the intraerythrocytic inclusions seen in blood smears correspond to Babesia or Plasmodium or in cases in which there is a coinfection by Babesia and Plasmodium.

From incubation to release: Hand-rearing as a tool for the conservation of the endangered African penguin.

The African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) population is estimated at 25,000 breeding pairs, approximately 5% of that at the start of the 20th century, and the species is currently classified as Endangered. In the last two decades, the hand-rearing of penguin chicks that were abandoned by their parents due to oil spills or other circumstances has become a valuable conservation tool to limit mortality and to bolster the population at specific colonies. We summarize and evaluate the techniques employed by the Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds (SANCCOB) to incubate and hand-rear African penguin eggs and chicks. From 2012 to 2016, a total of 694 eggs and 2819 chicks were received by SANCCOB's Chick Rearing Unit. It was estimated that 13% of the eggs were infertile, and 81% of the fertile eggs hatched successfully. The overall release rate for chicks was 77%, with a higher release rate for chicks that were pre-emptively removed (93%) followed by chicks that had been abandoned by their parents (78%), chicks admitted due to avian pox lesions (61%), chicks that hatched from artificially-incubated eggs (57%), and chicks admitted due to injuries or deformities (25%). Rescuing and hand-rearing eggs and chicks has been a successful strategy for African penguins, and might be also applicable for the conservation of other threatened seabird species whose population are critically low or during natural or anthropogenic events that could have disastrous population impacts (e.g. oil spills, disease outbreaks, catastrophic weather events, strong El Niño years, etc.).

A novel candidate species of Anaplasma that infects avian erythrocytes.

BACKGROUND: Anaplasma spp. are Gram-negative obligate intracellular bacteria transmitted by ticks. Even though numerous studies have detected DNA from Anaplasma spp. in the blood of birds, thus far mammals were the only vertebrates demonstrated to serve as competent hosts to these organisms. We report a novel candidate species of Anasplasma that was associated with cytoplasmic inclusions in the erythrocytes of an African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) in South Africa. METHODS: Cytoplasmic inclusions were morphologically characterized from freshly-produced blood smears, and phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA and groEL genes were used to evaluate the evolutionary relationships of the organism to other Anaplasmataceae. RESULTS: Dark-purple round or oval inclusions consistent with Anaplasmataceae morulae were observed in the cytoplasm of erythrocytes. Phylogenetic trees produced using different methods agreed that the organism detected in this study belongs to the genus Anaplasma, and suggested that it is most closely related to the cluster comprising A. centrale, A. capra, A. marginale and A. ovis. We propose provisionally naming the strain detected in this study as "Candidatus Anaplasma sphenisci". CONCLUSIONS: This is the first species of Anaplasma shown to produce cytoplasmic inclusions in avian cells, opening the possibility that cytoplasmic inclusions in avian erythrocytes that had previously been attributed to Aegyptianella sp. might in fact correspond to Anaplasma. Further studies on the molecular biology of avian-infecting Anaplasmataceae will be valuable to provide insight into the evolution and epidemiology of these organisms.

Do blood parasites infect Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) in the wild? Prospective investigation and climatogeographic considerations.

Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) are native to Argentina, Chile and the Falkland Islands. Magellanic penguins are highly susceptible to blood parasites such as the mosquito-borne Plasmodium spp., which have been documented causing high morbidity and mortality in zoos and rehabilitation centres. However, to date no blood parasites have been detected in wild Magellanic penguins, and it is not clear whether this is reflective of their true absence or is instead related to an insufficiency in sampling effort or a failure of the diagnostic methods. We examined blood smears of 284 Magellanic penguins from the Argentinean coast and tested their blood samples with nested polymerase chain reaction tests targeting Haemoproteus, Plasmodium, Leucocytozoon and Babesia. No blood parasites were detected. Analysing the sampling effort of previous studies and the climatogeography of the region, we found there is strong basis to conclude that haemosporidians do not infect wild Magellanic penguins on the Argentinean coast. However, at present it is not possible to determine whether such parasites occur on the Chilean coast and at the Falkland Islands. Furthermore, it is troubling that the northward distribution expansion of Magellanic penguins and the poleward distribution shift of vectors may lead to novel opportunities for the transmission of blood parasites.