Diabetes mellitus: subclinical cardiovascular disease and risk of incident cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality.

Previously diagnosed diabetes mellitus, newly diagnosed diabetes mellitus, and impaired glucose tolerance are important determinants of the risk of clinical cardiovascular disease (CVD). We have evaluated the relation of patients with subclinical CVD, diabetes, and impaired glucose tolerance and "normal" subjects and the risk of clinical CVD in the Cardiovascular Health Study. Diabetes (1343), impaired glucose tolerance (1433), and normal (2421) were defined by World Health Organization criteria at baseline in 1989 to 1990. The average follow-up was 6.4 years (mean age 73 years). Diabetics had a higher prevalence of clinical and subclinical CVD at baseline. Compared with diabetes in the absence of subclinical disease, the presence of subclinical CVD and diabetes was associated with significant increased adjusted relative risk of death (1.5, CI 0.93 to 2.41), relative risk of incident coronary heart disease (1.99, CI 1.25 to 3.19), and incident myocardial infarction (1.93, CI 0.96 to 3.91). The risk of clinical events was greater for participants with a history of diabetes compared with newly diagnosed diabetics at baseline. Compared with nondiabetic nonhypertensive subjects without subclinical disease, patients with a combination of diabetes, hypertension, and subclinical disease had a 12-fold increased risk of stroke. Fasting blood glucose levels were a weak predictor of incident coronary heart disease as were most other risk factors. Subclinical CVD was the primary determinant of clinical CVD among diabetics in the Cardiovascular Health Study.

Pregnancy after breast carcinoma: outcomes and influence on mortality.

BACKGROUND: To the authors' knowledge, no previous studies have identified an adverse effect of pregnancy on patient survival after breast carcinoma. However, results are difficult to interpret because of failure to control for stage of disease at the time the pregnancy occurred. METHODS: Study participants were women diagnosed with invasive breast carcinoma between 1983-1992 who previously had participated in a population-based case-control study or, if deceased, proxy respondents. Information regarding subsequent pregnancies was obtained by self-administered questionnaire or telephone interview. Information regarding breast carcinoma recurrences was obtained by questionnaire and from cancer registry abstracts. Women who became pregnant after a diagnosis of breast carcinoma (n = 53) were matched with women without subsequent pregnancies based on stage of disease at diagnosis and a recurrence free survival time in the comparison women greater than or equal to the interval between breast carcinoma diagnosis and onset of pregnancy in the women with a subsequent pregnancy. RESULTS: Sixty-eight percent of women who became pregnant after being diagnosed with breast carcinoma delivered one or more live-born infants. Miscarriages occurred in 24% of the patients who became pregnant compared with 18% of the controls (women without breast carcinoma) of similar ages from the case-control study. Five of the 53 women who had been pregnant after breast carcinoma died of the disease. The age-adjusted relative risk (RR) of death associated with any subsequent pregnancy was 0.8 (95% confidence interval [95% CI], 0.3-2.3). All five deaths occurred among the 36 women who had a live birth (age-adjusted RR = 1.1; 95% CI, 0.4-3.7). CONCLUSIONS: The findings of the current study are based on a small number of deaths but do not suggest that pregnancy after a diagnosis of breast carcinoma has an adverse effect on survival.

Variation in mammographic breast density by time in menstrual cycle among women aged 40-49 years.

BACKGROUND: Mammography is less effective for women aged 40-49 years than for older women, which has led to a call for research to improve the performance of screening mammography for younger women. One factor that may influence the performance of mammography is breast density. Younger women have greater mammographic breast density on average, and increased breast density increases the likelihood of false-negative and false-positive mammograms. We investigated whether breast density varies according to time in a woman's menstrual cycle. METHODS: Premenopausal women aged 40-49 years who were not on exogenous hormones and who had a screening mammogram at a large health maintenance organization during 1996 were studied (n = 2591). Time in the menstrual cycle was based on the woman's self-reported last menstrual bleeding and usual cycle length. RESULTS: A smaller proportion of women had "extremely dense" breasts during the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle (24% for week 1 and 23% for week 2) than during the luteal phase (28% for both weeks 3 and 4) (two-sided P = .04 for the difference in breast density between the phases, adjusted for body mass index). The relationship was stronger for women whose body mass index was less than or equal to the median (two-sided P<.01), the group who have the greatest breast density. CONCLUSIONS/IMPLICATIONS: These findings are consistent with previous evidence suggesting that scheduling a woman's mammogram during the follicular phase (first and second week) of her menstrual cycle instead of during the luteal phase (third and fourth week) may improve the accuracy of mammography for premenopausal women in their forties. Breast tissue is less radiographically dense in the follicular phase than in the luteal phase.

Human immunodeficiency virus infection in long-distance truck drivers in east Africa.

BACKGROUND: A cross-sectional survey was performed to determine the seroprevalence and correlates of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection among long-distance truck drivers in Kenya. METHODS: Truck drivers along the Mombasa-Nairobi highway were enrolled at a roadside research clinic. A standardized interview and serologic evaluation for HIV and syphilis were conducted. RESULTS: We enrolled 970 truck drivers and their assistants of whom 257 (27%) had HIV antibodies. In univariate analysis, HIV infection was correlated with older age, non-Kenyan nationality, Christian religion, longer duration of truck driving, travel outside of Kenya, less frequent visits to wives, and more frequent visits to prostitutes. Uncircumcised status, history of genital ulcer disease or urethritis during the previous 5 years, and a positive Treponema pallidum hemagglutination assay for syphilis were each associated with positive HIV serostatus. Univariate correlates of uncircumcised status included younger age, non-Kenyan nationality, Christian religion, travel outside of Kenya, and less frequent visits to prostitutes. There was a significant association between uncircumcised status and 5-year history of genital ulcer disease or serologic evidence of syphilis, but not with 5-year history of urethritis. In multivariate analysis, HIV infection was independently associated with uncircumcised status (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 4.9; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.8 to 8.4), history of genital ulcer disease (adjusted OR, 2.4; 95% CI, 1.5 to 4.1), history of urethritis (adjusted OR, 1.8; 95% CI, 1.1 to 2.9), more frequent sex with prostitutes (more than once per month; adjusted OR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.1 to 2.8), and positive T pallidum hemagglutination assay (adjusted OR, 1.2; 95% CI, 1.0 to 1.4). The attributable risk percentage for the association between HIV and uncircumcised status was 70%, and the population attributable risk was 25%. CONCLUSIONS: Truck drivers in east Africa are at high risk of HIV infection. The strongest correlates of HIV seropositivity were uncircumcised status and history of both ulcerative and nonulcerative sexually transmitted diseases.

Chronic hypertension, pregnancy-induced hypertension, and low birthweight.

We examined the associations between chronic hypertension, pregnancy-induced hypertension, and low birthweight in a retrospective cohort study using Washington birth certificate data. The adjusted prevalence ratio for low birthweight associated with chronic hypertension was 3.9 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 3.4-4.4]. The prevalence ratio for pregnancy-induced hypertension associated with chronic hypertension ranged from 3.6 (95% CI = 3.2-4.1) for primiparous women to 10.7 (95% CI = 8.7-13.2) for multiparous women. The association of chronic hypertension and low birthweight could not be explained by the increased risk of pregnancy-induced hypertension in these women.

Risk factors for breast cancer in younger women.

Epidemiologic studies of breast cancer that have included younger, premenopausal women in their populations have found that factors that predict altered risk of breast cancer after menopause can have different or even reversed effects before menopause. We have reviewed the literature on risk factors for breast cancer and their associations with breast cancer in general, and compared the risks for younger women with those for women diagnosed at older ages. Race, parity, and large body size are factors that may have opposite effects on breast cancer risk in younger and older women. Other factors of particular significance in the etiology of early-onset breast cancer include a late age at first birth, never having lactated, oral contraceptive use at early ages or of long duration, a family history of breast cancer, and a history of proliferative benign breast disease.

Beta-2 microglobulin as a marker of HIV disease status in Nairobi, Kenya.

Serum beta-2 microglobulin (beta 2-M) has prognostic value similar to lymphocyte profiles for predicting disease progression in those infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). However, the relationship between beta 2-M and HIV disease progression among inhabitants of countries with endemic tropical diseases has not been evaluated. To determine the relationship between serum beta 2-M levels and HIV infection and disease status in an African population, serum beta 2-M levels were measured in 369 patients attending a sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic in Nairobi, Kenya. Mean serum beta 2-M was significantly higher in HIV seropositive than in HIV seronegative individuals. Among HIV infected patients, higher mean beta 2-M levels were observed in those with HIV associated symptoms or laboratory markers of advanced HIV disease. Significant inverse correlations between beta 2-M and the percentage of CD4 lymphocytes or CD4/CD8 ratio were found. These findings suggest that beta 2-M measurements may have prognostic value for HIV infected populations in developing countries.

Adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse and subsequent risk of HIV infection.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiologic description of long-term adverse health effects of childhood sexual abuse is lacking, despite estimates that perhaps 30 percent of adults have experienced sexual assault in childhood. METHODS: In an adult cohort enrolled to investigate causes of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus, we identified current behaviors affecting risk of infection that were associated with a history of early sexual abuse. One hundred and eighty-six individuals provided information on the occurrence of abuse and subsequent sexual and drug using activities. RESULTS: Approximately half of the women and one-fifth of the men reported a history of rape during childhood or adulthood. Twenty-eight percent of the women and 15 percent of the men recalled that they had been sexually assaulted during childhood. People who reported childhood rape compared with people who did not were four times more likely to be working as prostitutes (90 percent confidence interval = 2.0, 8.0). Women were nearly three times more likely to become pregnant before the age of 18 (90% CI = 1.6, 4.1). Men who reported a history of sexual abuse had a twofold increase in prevalence of HIV infection relative to unabused men (90% CI = 1.0, 3.9). CONCLUSIONS: The disturbing prevalence of early sexual abuse and its possible health-related consequences call for prompt and routine investigation of sexual abuse histories. Identification of sexual victimization may be an important component for management of risk factors for human immunodeficiency virus.

The buddy volunteer commitment in AIDS care.

Buddy volunteers provide crucial assistance to people with HIV-related illnesses. Based on volunteers' self-administered questionnaires, our study describes the nature of buddy work. Volunteers indicated their satisfaction with both personal performance and buddy program administration. Several factors were associated with volunteer satisfaction. This report is a first attempt to describe this special relationship created in response to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic.