Preliminary images from an adaptive imaging system.

I-ImaS (Intelligent Imaging Sensors) is a European project aiming to produce real-time adaptive X-ray imaging systems using Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS) to create images with maximum diagnostic information within given dose constraints. Initial systems concentrate on mammography and cephalography. In our system, the exposure in each image region is optimised and the beam intensity is a function of tissue thickness and attenuation, and also of local physical and statistical parameters in the image. Using a linear array of detectors, the system will perform on-line analysis of the image during the scan, followed by optimisation of the X-ray intensity to obtain the maximum diagnostic information from the region of interest while minimising exposure of diagnostically less important regions. This paper presents preliminary images obtained with a small area CMOS detector developed for this application. Wedge systems were used to modulate the beam intensity during breast and dental imaging using suitable X-ray spectra. The sensitive imaging area of the sensor is 512 x 32 pixels 32 x 32 microm(2) in size. The sensors' X-ray sensitivity was increased by coupling to a structured CsI(Tl) scintillator. In order to develop the I-ImaS prototype, the on-line data analysis and data acquisition control are based on custom-developed electronics using multiple FPGAs. Images of both breast tissues and jaw samples were acquired and different exposure optimisation algorithms applied. Results are very promising since the average dose has been reduced to around 60% of the dose delivered by conventional imaging systems without decrease in the visibility of details.

Synthesis and conformational analysis by 1H NMR and restrained molecular dynamics simulations of the cyclic decapeptide [Ser-Tyr-Ser-Met-Glu-His-Phe-Arg-Trp-Gly].

The design of enzyme mimics with therapeutic and industrial applications has interested both experimental and computational chemists for several decades. Recent advances in the computational methodology of restrained molecular dynamics, used in conjunction with data obtained from two-dimensional 1H NMR spectroscopy, make it a promising method to study peptide and protein structure and function. Several issues, however, need to be addressed in order to assess the validity of this method for its explanatory and predictive value. Among the issues addressed in this study are: the accuracy and generizability of the GROMOS peptide molecular mechanics force field; the effect of inclusion of solvent on the simulations; and the effect of different types of restraining algorithms on the computational results. The decapeptide Ser-Tyr-Ser-Met-Glu-His-Phe-Arg-Trp-Gly, which corresponds to the sequence of ACTH1-10, has been synthesized, cyclized, and studied by two-dimensional 1H NMR spectroscopy. Restrained molecular dynamics (RMD) and time-averaged restrained molecular dynamics (TARMD) simulations were carried out on four different distance-geometry starting structures in order to determine and contrast the behavior of cyclic ACTH1-10 in vacuum and in solution. For the RMD simulations, the structures did not fit the NOE data well, even at high values of the restraining potential. The TARMD simulation method, however, was able to give structures that fit the NOE data at high values of the restraining potential. In both cases, inclusion of explicit solvent molecules in the simulation had little effect on the quality of the fit, although it was found to dampen the motion of the cyclic peptide. For both simulation techniques, the number and size of the NOE violations increased as the restraining potential approached zero. This is due, presumably, to inadequacies in the force field. Additional TARMD vacuum-phase simulations, run with a larger memory length or with a larger sampling size (16 additional distance-geometry structures), yielded no significantly different results. The computed data were then analyzed to help explain the sparse NOE data and poor chymotryptic activity of the cyclic peptide. Cyclic ACTH1-10, which contains the functional moieties of the catalytic triad of chymotrypsin, was evaluated as a potential mimic of chymotrypsin by measurement of the rate of hydrolysis of esters of L- and D-phenylalanine. The poor rate of hydrolysis is attributed to the flexibility of the decapeptide, the motion of the side chains, which result in the absence of long-range NOEs, the small size of the macrocycle relative to that of the substrate, and the inappropriate orientation of the Gly, His, and Ser residues. The results demonstrate the utility of this method in computer-aided molecular design of cyclic peptides and suggest structural modifications for future work based on a larger and more rigid peptide framework.

Computational analysis of binding affinity and neural response at the L-alanine receptor.

A model of analogue-receptor binding is developed for the L-alanine receptor in the channel catfish using the AM1-SM2 and ab initio SCRF computational methods. Besides interactions involving the zwitterionic moiety of the amino acid analogue and complementary subsites on the receptor, the model suggests the presence of a hydrophobic pocket with dispersion interactions between the receptor and the residue on the amino acid analogue. Conformational analysis suggests not only a small compact active site on the receptor, but also that the analogues with the highest affinity occupy nearly identical regions of space. Although the binding interaction is dominated by the ionic terms, AM1-SM2 calculations indicate that free energy terms associated with cavity formation, solvent reorganization, and dispersion interactions can be correlated to activation and neural response. From a consideration of this model, molecular features of the analogues that are important for binding and neural response were deduced and other analogues or ligands were developed and tested.

The application of stereolithography to the fabrication of accurate molecular models.

The process of stereolithography, which automatically fabricates plastic models from designs created in certain computer-aided design programs, has been applied to the production of accurate plastic molecular models. Atomic coordinates obtained from quantum mechanical calculations and from neutron diffraction data were used to locate spheres in the I-DEAS CAD program with radii proportional to the appropriate van der Waals radii. The sterolithography apparatus was used to build the models using a photosensitive liquid resin, resulting in hard plastic models that accurately represent the computed or experimental input structures. Three examples are given to illustrate how the models can be used to interpret experimental structure-activity data for systems of biological importance or host-guest chemistry: (1) Interpretation of kinetic data for the formation of a stable blocking complex between amiloride analogs and the epithelial sodium channel, (2) interpretation of binding and neural activity data for the interaction of certain amino acids and their analogs at the L-alanine taste receptor of the channel catfish, and (3) interpretation of shape selectivity and rate acceleration in cyclodextrin catalysis using models of the neutron diffraction structure of beta-cyclodextrin and of the transition state for the cleavage of phenyl acetate by the secondary hydroxyl oxygen of beta-cyclodextrin.

Molecular recognition of amiloride analogs: a molecular electrostatic potential analysis. 1. Pyrazine ring modifications.

Ab initio molecular electrostatic potential (MEP) patterns are used to determine the electrostatic requirements for the formation of a stable blocking complex between amiloride analogs and the epithelial sodium channel of Rana ridibunda. MEP maps calculated in the 3-21G(*) and STO-3G basis sets for amiloride and analogs with pyrazine ring modifications are used to interpret differences in the microscopic rate constants for analog-channel binding determined by Li et al. MEP maps of the protonated analogs are correlated to differences in the value of kon, the microscopic association constant. Those analogs with kon values similar to amiloride are found to have a MEP maximum that is localized over the side chain, as well as strong, distinguishing minima in the MEP pattern off the carbonyl oxygen and positions 3, 4, and 5 of the pyrazine ring. MEP maps of a model-encounter complex (protonated analog and formic acid anion) are correlated to differences in koff, the microscopic dissociation constant. The major conclusions of this work are that (1) a stable blocking complex is formed with analogs which have a deep, localized minimum off the 6 position of the pyrazine ring, (2) the stability of the blocking complex is directly related to the depth of that minimum, (3) substitution at position 5 affects not only the depth but also the location and size of the minimum off position 6, and (4) steric factors may influence the optimal binding of the 6-position ligand to the ion channel. The MEP analysis also suggests that the distance between the proton donors of the chelating guanidinium moiety and the deep, localized minimum off position 6 of the pyrazine ring may define an important spatial requirement for all those analogs which form a stable blocking complex with the channel.

Ab initio molecular electrostatic potentials of perillartine analogues: implications for sweet-taste receptor recognition.

A model for the recognition of the perillartine analogues has been determined from a consideration of the molecular electrostatic potentials calculated at the ab initio 3-21G level for a select set of biologically active analogues. The model stresses the importance of two regions of negative electrostatic potential. One region, near the oxime moiety, does not vary in shape or value with substitution in the hydrocarbon domain. A second region in the hydrocarbon domain varies in depth, extension, orientation, and shape, depending on the nature of the substituent. The depth, relative position, and orientation of this latter region in the most potent systems (the 1,4-cyclohexadiene analogue and its p-methyl derivative) serve as the basis for the optimum recognition pattern of these analogues. The rank order of taste potencies is in general agreement with predictions based on this model. In addition, some conclusions are drawn concerning the receptor-analogue interaction as well as the electrostatic features of the receptor.

Computer-aided design of artificial enzymes: cyclic urea mimetics of alpha-chymotrypsin.

We use molecular mechanics to calculate the conformational properties of a cyclic urea mimetic of alpha-chymotrypsin proposed, but not yet synthesized, by Cram and co-workers. We find that, in order to bring the structural elements of the catalytic triad into a spatial orientation suitable for proton transfer, the proposed enzyme mimetic must adopt a highly strained conformation. We redesign that part of the molecular architecture holding the catalytic triad in position and suggest two alternative enzyme mimetics. Of these, we find that the mimetic containing a fused ring structure positions the components of the catalytic triad at reasonable distances for proton transfer. We study the effect of these structural alterations on the recognition pattern presented by the enzyme mimetic to the substrate, as illustrated by the molecular electrostatic potential of the artificial enzyme.