Abundance, use of space, and activity patterns of white-faced sakis (Pithecia pithecia) in French Guiana.

White-faced sakis (Pithecia pithecia) are among the least studied neotropical primates. The combination of shy and quiet behavior, their ability to move silently, and the extreme difficulty of capturing them may explain why very few field studies have been undertaken in undisturbed habitats. During the course of a wildlife rescue in French Guiana, six individuals were captured and translocated to a safe area of primary rainforest. In this area, based on the observation of 35 groups, the average group size was 2.3 animals (SD = 1.2) and a density of 0.28 group/km(2) (0.64 individuals/km(2)) was estimated from transect censuses. Our study focused successively on three radio-collared animals (two males and one female) over a 287-day period, starting from release to the loss of the animal. From the study start, the triangulation method was used prior to habitutation to human presence, followed thereafter by 1,327 hr of visual monitoring. The translocated animals settled down, and two of them had a stable and compact home range. Two of them merged in association with members of the resident population. A resident group had a much larger home range than previously reported: 148 and 287 ha, using grid cells and 100% minimum convex polygon techniques, respectively. A group composed of two translocated individuals (one male and one female) had a home range of 68 and 135 ha using the same techniques. Additionally, two solitary animals used 152 and 162 1-ha quadrats. We observed animals (translocated and residents) moving quickly in one direction up to 11.5 km. The mean daily path length of resident animals was 1,880 m. Sakis used the lower strata of the forest more when in group, and the intermediate strata more when solitary. Allogrooming is fairly common in social groups. On average, the activity period ranged from 7:17 to 15:59 hr.

Health evaluation of translocated free-ranging primates in French Guiana.

Among over 40 mammal species threatened by the filling of a hydroelectric dam reservoir in French Guiana, three species of primates have been translocated, comprising 124 red howler monkeys, six white-faced sakis, and 95 golden-handed tamarins. Health status of the animals was evaluated by direct physical examination and by hematological, biochemical, virological, and parasitological surveys of collected blood. The physical condition of the howlers was slightly worse toward the end of the capture period, but that of sakis and tamarins remained satisfactory. Several ectoparasites (ticks, larvae of dipterous insects, fleas, and lice) were collected, and various wounds, apparently nondebilitating, were recorded in howlers. Hematological and biochemical profiles determined for the three species revealed a slight anemia in howlers. Entamoeba, Strongyloides, and Trypanoxyurus were common in fecal samples of howlers. A survey of blood smears from the three species revealed infection by several types of microfilaria, Trypanosoma rangeli-like and Plasmodium brasilianum in all three, and Trypanosoma cruzi-like in howlers. These infections had no significant impact on the health status or the hematological profiles. Serologic investigations revealed occasional reactions against Toxoplasma gondii, a strong anti-Plasmodium response in the two Cebidae species, and a weaker one in tamarins. Attempts to isolate arbovirus failed, but antibody responses to Mayaro and yellow fever viruses were strong, especially in the howlers. A strong correlation between age and serological status led to a better understanding of the epidemic cycles. Our survey indicates French Guianan primates are reservoirs for several anthropozoonoses, including malaria, Chagas disease, and arboviruses.

Trypanosomatidae from wild mammals in the neotropical rainforest of French Guiana.

The initial filling of the reservoir behind the Petit Saut hydro-electric dam, on the Sinnamary River in French Guiana, threatened the terrestrial and arboreal animals living in the neotropical rainforest being flooded. During a rescue programme between 24 October and 12 November in 1994, many of these animals were checked for infection with trypanosomatids. Overall, 45 blood samples and 54 skin biopsies were collected from 53 mammals (of 13 species representing five orders) and blood samples were also taken from each of nine reptiles (six species from four families). When the skin biopsies and the buffy-coats from the blood samples were cultured in NNN medium, 10 of the cultures, each initiated with mammalian blood, were found to be positive for trypanosomatids. Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis (MLEE) on cellulose acetate plates, with 20 enzyme systems, was then used to investigate each of the positive cultures. The results were analysed by clustering from a genetic distance matrix, using the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic averages (UPGMA), and applying a bootstrap procedure to Wagner parsimony trees. A stock obtained from Didelphis marsupialis was identified as a zymodeme of Trypanosoma cruzi (Miles' zymodeme 1) known to cause Chagas disease in French Guiana. Five stocks (one each from Bradypus tridactylus, Tamandua tetradactyla and Alouatta seniculus and two from Saguinus midas) were of a single zymodeme close to Trypanosoma rangeli reference stock RGB. This is the first confirmation of the presence of Tr. rangeli in French Guiana, and the first time that it has been identified, by iso-enzyme analysis, in the neotropical primates A. seniculus and S. midas. Two other stocks, isolated from Choloepus didactylus, were related to Endotrypanum schaudinni reference stock LEM 2790. Although the remaining stocks, one from C. didactylus and the other from A. seniculus, clustered together on UPGMA and in a Wagner tree, they did not appear to be related to any of the reference stocks included in the UPGMA dendrogram.

A survey of hemoparasite infections in free-ranging mammals and reptiles in French Guiana.

Blood smears of 1,353 free-ranging mammals (35 species) and 112 reptiles (31 species) from French Guiana were examined for hemoparasites. Parasites from 3 major groups were recorded: Apicomplexa (including hemogregarines, piroplasms, and Plasmodium spp.), Trypanosomatidae, and Filaroidea. Fifty percent of the individuals (86% of the species) were infected by parasites from at least 1 group. Hemogregarines, identified as Hepatozoon sp., infected numerous snakes with high prevalences (30-100%); infection is reported for the first time in 5 host genera of snakes: Clelia, Oxybelis, Pseustes, Rhinobotryum, and Bothriopsis. Infections were also observed in 4 marsupial species and 1 rodent. Hepatozoon spp. recorded in Didelphis albiventris (Marsupialia) and Coendou prehensilis (Rodentia) may be new species. Plasmodium sp. were observed in 2 snake species, Dipsas indica (Colubridae) and Bothrops atrox (Viperidae). Plasmodium brasilianum was recorded in all 5 primate species examined. Piroplasms were observed in all mammal orders except primates. Large terrestrial rodents were the main hosts of members of the Babesidae; 42% of Myoprocta acouchy, 36% of Dasyprocta agouti, and 44% of Agouti paca were infected. Trypanosomes were common in mammals and were recorded in 70% of the examined genera. Trypanosoma cruzi-like infections were reported in 21 mammal species, including sloths, rodents, carnivores, and primates. Microfilariae were also widespread, with higher prevalences in sloths, anteaters, and porcupines (>40% of the individuals infected) and in tamarins (95% infected). This survey highlights some potential anthropozoonotic risks due to the recent further evidence of Plasmodium brasilianum and P. malariae as a single species and to the increased diversity of hosts for Trypanosoma cruzi.

Immobilization of free-ranging nine-banded and great long-nosed armadillos with three anesthetic combinations.

Nine-banded (n = 47) and great (n = 31) long-nosed armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus and Dasypus kappleri) were immobilized for clinical examination and collection of biological samples as part of a wildlife rescue during the filling of a hydroelectric dam (Petit Saut, French Guiana) from May 1994 to April 1995. Three intramuscular (i.m.) anesthetic combinations were evaluated: (1) tiletamine/zolazepam (T/Z) at a dose of 8.5 mg/kg in 12 nine-banded long-nosed armadillos (NBA) and 10 great long-nosed armadillos (GLA), (2) ketamine at 40 mg/kg combined with xylazine at 1.0 mg/kg (K/X) in 18 NBA and nine GLA, and (3) ketamine at 7.5 mg/kg combined with medetomidine at 75 microng/kg (K/M) in 17 NBA and 12 GLA, antagonized by 375 microg/kg atipamezole. Induction was smooth, ranged from mean +/- SD = 2.8+/-0.6 to 4.3+/-1.8 min, and did not differ significantly between protocols, species, or sex. In NBA, immobilization time ranged from 43.8+/-27.8 to 66.5+/-40.0 min and did not differ between protocols or sex. Muscle relaxation was judged to be better with K/X and K/M versus T/Z. In GLA, the response to the anesthetic protocols was more variable and immobilization time ranged from 30.4+/-6.2 to 98.4+/-33.7 min. The main difference was observed in GLA females receiving the T/Z combination, in which immobilization time was significantly longer versus males, but also versus GLA K/M group, and versus NBA T/Z group. Effects on body temperature, heart rate and respiratory rate were limited. Thirty six to 50% of the individuals showed hypoxemia (SpO2 < 85%) throughout anesthesia and values <80% also were recorded but the hypoxemia was not associated with clinical signs. With T/Z and K/X, recovery was irregular and prolonged up to 2 to 3 hr in some individuals. In K/M groups, first standing was observed 1.0 to 16.4 min after i.m. atipamezole injection without adverse effects. Finally, the three anesthetic combinations used in this study were effective and safe agents for 30 to 40 min immobilizations including minor surgery procedures. The ability to antagonize the medetomidine-induced sedation with atipamezole significantly reduces the recovery time, making the K/M combination preferable, especially in field conditions.

Hematological and serum chemistry profiles of free-ranging southern two-toed sloths in French Guiana.

Free-ranging southern two-toed sloths (Choloepus didactylus) were translocated during the flooding of a forest at a hydroelectric dam site in French Guiana. Over an 11 mo period blood samples were collected from 90 sloths (38 males, 52 females) in order to determine hematological and serum chemistry reference values. Mean values and range of values were calculated for 13 hematological and 21 serum chemistry parameters. Variations associated with sex, age and reproductive status were identified. Males had a significantly lower red blood cell count than females. Immature animals had more monocytes while adults had more neutrophils and higher mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration. Aspartate aminotransferase and triglyceride values were higher in young than in adult sloths but uric acid was lower. Lactating females showed lower red blood cells count and iron levels than non-lactating females. These profiles will help to provide reliable baseline data for medical evaluation of sloths.

Phylogeographic patterns and evolution of the mitochondrial DNA control region in two neotropical cats (Mammalia, felidae).

The ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) and margay (L. wiedii) are sister-species of Neotropical cats which evolved from a lineage that migrated into South America during the formation of the Panamanian land bridge 3-5 million years ago. Patterns of population genetic divergence of each species were studied by phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region sequences in individuals sampled across the distribution of these taxa. Abundant genetic diversity and remarkably concordant phylogeographic partitions for both species were observed, identifying parallel geographic regions which likely reflect historical faunal barriers. Inferred aspects of phylogeography, population genetic structure, and demographic history were used to formulate conservation recommendations for these species. In addition, observed patterns of sequence variation provided insight into the molecular evolution of the mtDNA control region in closely related felids.

Hematology and serum biochemistry values of free-ranging red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) from French Guiana.

One hundred twenty-two wild red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) were translocated during flooding of the forest at a hydroelectric dam site in French Guiana. Blood samples from 103 animals were evaluated for 13 hematologic and/or 22 serum chemistry parameters. Significant age-specific variation was found for white blood cell (WBC), lymphocyte, and platelet counts and for alkaline phosphatase values. Adult males and females had significant differences in red blood cell count, packed cell volume, and hemoglobin, creatinine, cholesterol, and calcium values. In juveniles, amylase and cholesterol levels were significantly lower in males than in females. Significant differences associated with reproductive status were also observed; i.e., lower cholesterol level in pregnant females and higher packed cell volume in lactating females. Chronic stress due to habitat disappearance may have been responsible for significant differences between thin animals and those in good condition. Thin animals had lower WBC, eosinophil, basophil, and monocyte counts and higher platelet counts. Capture stress was probably responsible for high and variable levels of creatine kinase, aspartate aminotransferase, and lactate dehydrogenase.

Immobilization of wild kinkajous (Potos flavus) with medetomidine-ketamine and reversal by atipamezole.

As part of a wildlife rescue during the filling of a lake created by a hydroelectric dam (Petit Saut, French Guiana), 10 wild kinkajous (Potos flavus) were immobilized with medetomidine and ketamine for clinical examination and collection of biological samples. A mean (+/-SD) i.m. dose of 0.11+/-0.01 mg/kg medetomidine and 5.5+/-0.6 mg/kg ketamine rapidly induced complete immobilization (3.0+/-0.9 min) with good muscle relaxation and loss of corneal and pedal withdrawal reflexes. The duration and the quality of the anesthesia allowed procedures including minor surgery. Rectal temperature, heart and respiration rates, and relative oxyhemoglobin saturation (SpO2) were monitored at 5 min, 15 min, and 30 min after the medetomidine ketamine injection. Rectal temperature and heart rate significantly decreased during this time (P < 0.05). Low values of SpO2 (<90%) were recorded shortly after the injection. Hypoxemia partially resolved with time, confirmed by an increase in most SpO2 values. Atipamezole given i.m. at 5 mg/mg of medetomidine reversed the effects of the medetomidine in kinkajous. No adverse effects were observed during recovery. In group I, the antagonist was injected at 40.6+/-3.9 min. In group II, the animals showed signs of spontaneous recovery 37.9+/-6.9 min before antagonist injection at 52.2+/-6.1 min. Time from antagonist injection to ambulatory state was significantly shorter (P < 0.05) in group II (2.8+/-1.1 min) than in group I (6.9+/-1.2 min).

Mayaro virus fever in French Guiana: isolation, identification, and seroprevalence.

This paper reports the first isolation of Mayaro (MAY) virus from a patient infected in French Guiana. The identification was initially performed using immunofluorescent antibody testing with specific mouse antibody, and confirmed by plaque-reduction neutralization testing and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. To determine if MAY virus infection is widespread in French Guiana, a serosurvey was performed to determine the prevalence of antibody to this virus in various ethnic groups and areas of French Guiana. Human sera (n = 1,962) were screened using the hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test. To determine whether MAY virus circulates in the rain forest, a serosurvey in monkey populations was performed. Monkey sera (n = 150) were also screened for antibody to MAY virus using HI testing. Of the human sera tested, 6.3% were positive for anti-MAY virus antibodies. Significant differences in MAY virus seroprevalence between different age groups were observed. Seroprevalence rates increased with age, with a large increase in people 10-19 years of age in comparison with those less than 10 years of age. After adjustment for age, significant differences were also found between places of residence. The prevalence of anti-MAY virus antibody was higher in people living in contact with the forest, especially in the Haut Oyapock area (odds ratio [OR] = 97.7, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 48.2-197.9) and along the Maroni River (OR = 39.7, 95% CI = 20.6-76.6). The ethnic differences observed in this study were probably due to differences in residence. Among monkeys, higher seroprevalence rates were found in Alouatta seniculus (66.0%) than in Saguinus midas (18.2%). Among Alouatta, the seroprevalence increased significantly with weight (and therefore with age). This study indicates that MAY virus is present in French Guiana, and human infections occur in areas where people live near the tropical rain forest.

Anesthesia of wild red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) with medetomidine/ketamine and reversal by atipamezole.

Wild red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) were translocated during the flooding of the forest at a hydroelectric dam site in French Guiana. For a variety of minor clinical procedures, 96 monkeys were anesthetized with various intramuscular injections of combinations of medetomidine and ketamine. The howler population was composed of healthy animals (42 males and 54 females) of various ages. Medetomidine (150 micrograms/kg) associated with ketamine (4 mg/kg) gave the best results and was used on 63 animals. The injection rapidly resulted in complete immobilization with good to excellent myorelaxation. The induction stage was quiet, with absence of both corneal and pedal withdrawal reflexes in 57 animals after 2.9 +/- 1.4 min. Six animals required an additional injection. Rectal temperature and respiratory and heart rates decreased during anesthesia, whereas relative oxyhemoglobin saturation increased. One death occurred during anesthesia. One abortion and one death also occurred the day following anesthesia but were more probably a result of capture stress. Atipamezole given i.m. at a dose of five times the medetomidine dose 38.4 +/- 8.0 min after the anesthetic injection led to standing recovery in 7.1 +/- 4.5 min. Spontaneous recovery occurred in 17 animals before the atipamezole injection after an average of 30.6 +/- 9.6 min. Total recovery time was shorter in young animals. Medetomidine/ketamine induced good myorelaxation and provided considerably shortened immobilization duration, which are two notable advantages for field studies. We recommend this association for short procedures including minor surgery in red howler monkeys.

Comparison of injectable anesthetic combinations in free-ranging two-toed sloths in French guiana.

Immobilization was studied in 202 free-ranging two-toed sloths (Choloepus didactylus). All the sloths were in good condition with a body weight > 2 kg, and were anesthetized for a variety of minor clinical procedures. Intramuscular anesthetic combinations included 0.1 mg/kg acepromazine + 10 mg/kg ketamine (A/K, n = 30), 1 mg/kg xylazine + 10 mg/kg ketamine (X/K, n = 89), 10 mg/kg tiletamine/zolazepam (T/Z, n = 37), and 0.04 mg/kg medetomidine + 3 mg/kg ketamine (M/K, n = 46) antagonized by 0.2 mg/kg atipamezole. The animals were quiet during the induction stage and complete recumbency was reached in (mean +/- SD) 2.5 +/- 2.0 min with A/K, 2.7 +/- 1.7 min with X/K, 1.8 +/- 0.6 min with T/Z, and 2.5 +/- 5 with M/K. Utilization of A/K was not satisfactory because of poor anesthetic level and lack of muscle relaxation. T/Z induced immobilization was characterized by deep anesthesia and good myorelaxation, but often was associated with irregular respiration and low relative oxyhemoglobin saturation values (SpO2). Ketamine in combination with alpha2-agonists, xylazine or medetomidine, provided suitable anesthesia, with good to excellent muscular relaxation, good analgesia, high SpO2 values, moderate bradycardia, but strong bradypnea with medetomidine. Anesthesia with M/K was reversed after 41.6 min of immobilization with atipamezole. Calm recoveries were obtained and the animals were able to hang up after 10.0 +/- 7.9 min. The first signs of arousal were observed within an average of 43 to 51 min after the injection of the three other combinations. Recoveries from X/K immobilization were quiet; sloths held on after 34 min. With T/Z, recovery duration was long and very irregular at 76.7 +/- 31.3 min, some animals required 3 hr before being able to hang up. Finally, ketamine in association with an alpha2-agonist appeared to give the best chemical immobilization in wild two-toed sloths for 40 min procedures including minor surgery.

Fleas in French Guiana (Insecta: Siphonaptera).

Based on a collection of approximately 760 fleas, of which 520 were collected in 1994-1995 during scientific studies at the Petit Saut dam site in French Guiana, 12 species and subspecies are discussed. Two taxa, Rhopalopsyllus garbei Guimarães, 1940 and Adoratopsylla intermedia copha (Jordan, 1926), are new records for French Guiana. The fleas collected during the 1994-1995 study were obtained from 35 species of mammals (3,484 specimens); of which, 21 (60%) species were negative for fleas. The mammals were captured primarily by live-trapping during a capture-release study along a portion of the Sinnamary River and its tributaries up to a distance of 70 km upstream from the Petit Saut dam site.

Immobilization of wild collared anteaters with ketamine- and xylazine-hydrochloride.

Collared anteaters (Tamandua tetradactyla) were immobilized for clinical procedures as part of a wildlife rescue during the filling of a hydroelectric dam (Petit Saut, French Guiana) from March 1994 to March 1995. Two doses of ketamine hydrochloride (KH) (group I mean +/- SD = 11.2 +/- 1.4 mg/kg, group II = 19.7 +/- 1.3 mg/kg) in combination with xylazine hydrochloride (XH) (1.0 +/- 0.1 mg/kg) were evaluated in seven and 10 collared anteaters, respectively. Induction time did not differ between the two groups. Immobilization time was significantly longer in group II than in group I (48.3 +/- 15.8 min and 35.0 +/- 9.5 min, respectively), without lengthening the recovery process. Adverse effects were not observed. The degree of anesthesia and the muscle relaxation were better in group II than in group I. Rectal temperature decreased in both groups and was significantly higher in group II than in group I. Heart rate was significantly higher in group II than in group I at 5 min post-injection and decreased in group II. No effects on respiratory rate were observed. We recommend the 20 mg/kg KH -1 mg/kg XH combination, especially for manipulations longer than 30 to 40 min and for minor surgery procedures.

Occurrence of severe leptospirosis in a breeding colony of squirrel monkeys.

Although experimental leptospirosis has been studied in various species of monkeys, the occurrence of acute leptospirosis in a population of nonhuman primates is uncommon. We report on a number of severe cases of icterohemorrhagic leptospirosis that appeared in the squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus) colony of 109 animals at the Institute Pasteur in French Guiana. Initially, 11 animals had acute illness, with jaundice and a hemorrhagic syndrome, leading to 10 deaths. Two Leptospira interrogans strains were isolated from blood cultures of sick monkeys, and one was isolated from the urine of a rat trapped in the breeding park. All three belonged to serovar copenhageni, and tests using monoclonal antibodies showed that these three strains were extremely similar. In the following weeks, five pregnant female monkeys had miscarriages; two of them had antibodies against the Icterohaemorrhagiae serogroup. An epidemiologic study conducted on the 93 remaining animals demonstrated a seropositivity rate of 26% (microagglutination test [MAT] titer greater than or equal to 100) primarily for the Icterohaemorrhagiae serogroup, but also for the Ballum, Grippotyphosa, Sejroe, and Panama serogroups. In addition, 12% showed lower MAT titers (50) for the same serogroups. Lastly, recently trapped feral squirrel monkeys were shown to have agglutinins against the Grippotyphosa and Sejroe serogroups. A vaccine, which was prepared from one of the strains isolated, was used in addition to antibiotic prophylaxis to control the enzootic disease. This confirms that the squirrel monkey is highly susceptible to icterohemorrhagic leptospirosis and is probably receptive to other serogroups, and that this animal may be useful in studying experimental leptospirosis and for testing new human vaccines.