Experimental insights on biofouling growth in marine renewable structures.

Background: Marine biofouling is a threat to industries working in the marine environment, representing significant costs associated with equipment impairment and loss of performance. In the Marine Renewable Energy (MRE) and other maritime sectors which operate at sea for long periods, an important aspect of biofouling is related to the type and frequency of inspections and biofouling removal procedures. Methods: This study investigated important parameters of macrofouling ( e.g. composition, including the presence of non-indigenous species, thickness, and weight) from communities growing on samples that emulate tubular components of marine renewable devices. The trials were performed during short periods of submersion (one to eight weeks) in the seasons when the colonisation process should be most intensive (spring, summer, and autumn). Furthermore, the frictional resistance forces generated during the scraping of biofouling from those components were investigated. Results: Overall, results provide insights on the growth rates and removal requirements of biofouling in marine components. The results show that, while biofouling growth in early colonization stages might not present great detrimental effects to wave energy components, the consequent marine corrosion (fostered by biofouling) and the settlement of non-indigenous species (NIS) should be factors of concern. Conclusions: Performing biofouling-related maintenance activities after the peak of maximum growth and reproduction (during the warmer seasons in temperate to cold environments) is suggested to reduce the number and frequency of activities. NIS can be detected at very early stages in the colonization process, highlighting the importance of biofouling monitoring and the implementation of biosecurity risk assessment plans early in the operational stage of MRE projects.

Trace element bioaccumulation in hypersaline ecosystems and implications of a global invasion.

Hypersaline ecosystems are under increasing threat due to anthropogenic pressures such as environmental pollution and biological invasions. Here we address the ecotoxicological implications of the Artemia franciscana (Crustacea) invasion in saltpans of southern Spain. This North American species is causing the extinction of native Artemia populations in many parts of the globe. The bioaccumulation of trace elements (As, Cd, Cu, Co, Cr, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn) in native populations (A. parthenogenetica) from Cabo de Gata and Odiel saltpans and invasive Artemia from Cádiz saltpan was studied at different salinities. Furthermore, in Odiel, the most polluted study site, we also analysed the bioaccumulation of trace elements by Chironomus salinarius larvae (Diptera) and Ochthebius notabilis adults (Coleoptera). High levels of trace elements were detected in the studied saltpans, many of them exceeding the recommended threshold guidelines for aquatic life. Bioaccumulation of trace elements by Artemia was lowest at the highest salinity. The invasive A. franciscana showed higher potential to bioaccumulate trace elements than its native counterpart (in particular for As, Cd, Ni and Cr). In Odiel, O. notabilis stood out as showing the highest potential to bioaccumulate As and Cu. Results showed that the shift from a native to an alien Artemia species with a higher bioaccumulation capacity may increase the transfer of trace elements in hypersaline food webs, especially for waterbirds that depend on Artemia as food. Thus, our study identifies an indirect impact of the Artemia franciscana invasion that had not previously been recognised.

Life history and physiological responses of native and invasive brine shrimps exposed to zinc.

Although a substantial amount of research exists on pollution and biological invasions, there is a paucity of understanding of how both factors interact. Most studies show that pollution favours the establishment of invasive species, but pollution may also promote local adaptation of native species and prevent the establishment of new incomers. However, evidence for this is extremely limited because most studies focus on successful invasions and very few on cases where an invasion has been resisted. Here we provide evidence of local adaptation of native species to pollution combining life history and physiological data. We focused on the invasion of the North American brine shrimp Artemia franciscana, which is causing a dramatic biodiversity loss in hypersaline ecosystems worldwide, and one of the last native Artemia populations in SW Europe (A. parthenogenetica from the historically polluted Odiel estuary, SW Spain). Life table response experiments were carried out in the laboratory to compare the demographic responses of A. parthenogenetica and a nearby A. franciscana population to long-term Zn exposure (0.2 mg L-1). We also evaluated oxidative stress by measuring antioxidant defences (catalase, glutathione reductase and superoxide dismutase) and lipid peroxidation (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances). A high concentration of Zn induced strong mortality in A. franciscana, which also showed high levels of lipid peroxidation, suggesting relatively poor physiological resistance to pollution compared with A. parthenogenetica. The age at maturity was shorter in A. parthenogenetica, which may be an adaptation to the naturally high mortality rate observed in the Odiel population. Exposure to Zn accelerated age at first reproduction in A. franciscana but not in A. parthenogenetica. In contrast, Zn had a stimulatory effect on offspring production in A. parthenogenetica,which also showed higher reproductive parameters (number of broods, total offspring and offspring per brood) than A. franciscana. Overall, the results of this study strongly suggest that native Artemia from Odiel estuary is locally adapted (at both, reproductive and physiological levels) to Zn contamination and that A. franciscana is highly sensitive. This is a good example of how pollution may play a role in the persistence of the last native Artemia populations in the Mediterranean.