Advising and limiting medical treatment during phone consultation: a prospective multicentre study in HEMS settings.

BACKGROUND: We investigated paramedic-initiated consultation calls and advice given via telephone by Helicopter Emergency Medical Service (HEMS) physicians focusing on limitations of medical treatment (LOMT). METHODS: A prospective multicentre study was conducted on four physician-staffed HEMS bases in Finland during a 6-month period. RESULTS: Of all 6115 (mean 8.4/base/day) paramedic-initiated consultation calls, 478 (7.8%) consultation calls involving LOMTs were included: 268 (4.4%) cases with a pre-existing LOMT, 165 (2.7%) cases where the HEMS physician issued a new LOMT and 45 (0.7%) cases where the patient already had an LOMT and the physician further issued another LOMT. The most common new limitation was a do-not-attempt cardiopulmonary resuscitation (DNACPR) order (n = 122/210, 58%) and/or 'not eligible for intensive care' (n = 96/210, 46%). In 49 (23%) calls involving a new LOMT, termination of an initiated resuscitation attempt was the only newly issued LOMT. The most frequent reasons for issuing an LOMT during consultations were futility of the overall situation (71%), poor baseline functional status (56%), multiple/severe comorbidities (56%) and old age (49%). In the majority of cases (65%) in which the HEMS physician issued a new LOMT for a patient without any pre-existing LOMT, the physician felt that the patient should have already had an LOMT. The patient was in a health care facility or a nursing home in half (49%) of the calls that involved issuing a new LOMT. Access to medical records was reported in 29% of the calls in which a new LOMT was issued by an HEMS physician. CONCLUSION: Consultation calls with HEMS physicians involving patients with LOMT decisions were common. HEMS physicians considered end-of-life questions on the phone and issued a new LOMT in 3.4% of consultations calls. These decisions mainly concerned termination of resuscitation, DNACPR, intubation and initiation of intensive care.

Limiting treatment in pre-hospital care: A prospective, observational multicentre study.

BACKGROUND: Data are scarce on the withdrawal of life-sustaining therapies and limitation of care orders (LCOs) during physician-staffed Helicopter Emergency Medical Service (HEMS) missions. We investigated LCOs and the quality of information available when physicians made treatment decisions in pre-hospital care. METHODS: A prospective, nationwide, multicentre study including all Finnish physician-staffed HEMS bases during a 6-month study period. All HEMS missions where a patient had pre-existing LCOs and/or a new LCO were included. RESULTS: There were 335 missions with LCOs, which represented 5.7% of all HEMS missions (n = 5895). There were 181 missions with pre-existing LCOs, and a total of 170 new LCOs were issued. Usually, the pre-existing LCO was a do not attempt cardiopulmonary resuscitation order only (n = 133, 74%). The most frequent new LCO was 'termination of cardiopulmonary resuscitation' only (n = 61, 36%), while 'no intensive care' combined with some other LCO was almost as common (n = 54, 32%). When issuing a new LCO for patients who did not have any preceding LCOs (n = 153), in every other (49%) case the physicians thought that the patient should have already had an LCO. When the physician made treatment decisions, patients' background information from on-scene paramedics was available in 260 (78%) of the LCO missions, while patients' medical records were available in 67 (20%) of the missions. CONCLUSION: Making LCOs or treating patients with pre-existing LCOs is an integral part of HEMS physicians' work, with every twentieth mission involving LCO patients. The new LCOs mostly concerned withholding or withdrawal of cardiopulmonary resuscitation and intensive care.

The first seven years of nationally organized helicopter emergency medical services in Finland - the data from quality registry.

BACKGROUND: Helicopter Emergency Medical Services (HEMS) play an important role in prehospital care of the critically ill. Differences in funding, crew composition, dispatch criteria and mission profile make comparison between systems challenging. Several systems incorporate databases for quality control, performance evaluation and scientific purposes. FinnHEMS database was incorporated for such purposes following the national organization of HEMS in Finland 2012. The aims of this study are to describe information recorded in the database, data collection, and operational characteristics of Finnish HEMS during 2012-2018. METHODS: All dispatches of the six Finnish HEMS units recorded in the national database from 2012 to 2018 were included in this observational registry study. Five of the units are physician staffed, and all are on call 24/7. The database follows a template for uniform reporting in physician staffed pre-hospital services, exceeding the recommended variables of relevant guidelines. RESULTS: The study included 100,482 dispatches, resulting in 33,844 (34%) patient contacts. Variables were recorded with little or no missing data. A total of 16,045 patients (16%) were escorted by HEMS to hospital, of which 2239 (2%) by helicopter. Of encountered patients 4195 (4%) were declared deceased on scene. The number of denied or cancelled dispatches was 66,638 (66%). The majority of patients were male (21,185, 63%), and the median age was 57.7 years. The median American Society of Anesthesiologists Physical Scale classification was 2 and Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance class 0. The most common reason for response was trauma representing 26% (8897) of the patients, followed by out-of-hospital cardiac arrest 20% (6900), acute neurological reason excluding stroke 13% (4366) and intoxication and related psychiatric conditions 10% (3318). Blunt trauma (86%, 7653) predominated in the trauma classification. CONCLUSIONS: Gathering detailed and comprehensive data nationally on all HEMS missions is feasible. A national database provides valuable insights into where the operation of HEMS could be improved. We observed a high number of cancelled or denied missions and a low percentage of patients transported by helicopter. The medical problem of encountered patients also differs from comparable systems.

Limitation of treatment in prehospital care - the experiences of helicopter emergency medical service physicians in a nationwide multicentre survey.

BACKGROUND: Making ethically sound treatment limitations in prehospital care is a complex topic. Helicopter Emergency Medical Service (HEMS) physicians were surveyed on their experiences with limitations of care orders in the prehospital setting, including situations where they are dispatched to healthcare facilities or nursing homes. METHODS: A nationwide multicentre study was conducted among all HEMS physicians in Finland in 2017 using a questionnaire with closed five-point Likert-scale questions and open questions. The Ethics Committee of the Tampere University Hospital approved the study protocol (R15048). RESULTS: Fifty-nine (88%) physicians responded. Their median age was 43 (IQR 38-47) and median medical working experience was 15 (IQR 10-20) years. All respondents made limitation of care orders and 39% made them often. Three fourths (75%) of the physicians were often dispatched to healthcare facilities and nursing homes and the majority (93%) regularly met patients who should have already had a valid limitation of care order. Every other physician (49%) had sometimes decided not to implement a medically justifiable limitation of care order because they wanted to avoid conflicts with the patient and/or the next of kin and/or other healthcare staff. Limitation of care order practices varied between the respondents, but neither age nor working experience explained these differences in answers. Most physicians (85%) stated that limitations of care orders are part of their work and 81% did not find them especially burdensome. The most challenging patient groups for treatment limitations were the under-aged patients, the severely disabled patients and the patients in healthcare facilities or residing in nursing homes. CONCLUSION: Making limitation of care orders is an important but often invisible part of a HEMS physician's work. HEMS physicians expressed that patients in long-term care were often without limitations of care orders in situations where an order would have been ethically in accordance with the patient's best interests.

Collecting core data in physician-staffed pre-hospital helicopter emergency medical services using a consensus-based template: international multicentre feasibility study in Finland and Norway.

BACKGROUND: Comparison of services and identification of factors important for favourable patient outcomes in emergency medical services (EMS) is challenging due to different organization and quality of data. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the feasibility of physician-staffed EMS (p-EMS) to collect patient and system level data by using a consensus-based template. METHODS: The study was an international multicentre observational study. Data were collected according to a template for uniform reporting of data from p-EMS using two different data collection methods; a standard and a focused data collection method. For the standard data collection, data were extracted retrospectively for one year from all FinnHEMS bases and for the focused data collection, data were collected prospectively for six weeks from four selected Norwegian p-EMS bases. Completeness rates for the two data collection methods were then compared and factors affecting completeness rates and template feasibility were evaluated. Standard Chi-Square, Fisher's Exact Test and Mann-Whitney U Test were used for group comparison of categorical and continuous data, respectively, and Kolomogorov-Smirnov test for comparison of distributional properties. RESULTS: All missions with patient encounters were included, leaving 4437 Finnish and 128 Norwegian missions eligible for analysis. Variable completeness rates indicated that physiological variables were least documented. Information on pain and respiratory rate were the most frequently missing variables with a standard data collection method and systolic blood pressure was the most missing variable with a focused data collection method. Completeness rates were similar or higher when patients were considered severely ill or injured but were lower for missions with short patient encounter. When a focused data collection method was used, completeness rates were higher compared to a standard data collection method. CONCLUSIONS: We found that a focused data collection method increased data capture compared to a standard data collection method. The concept of using a template for documentation of p-EMS data is feasible in physician-staffed services in Finland and Norway. The greatest deficiencies in completeness rates were evident for physiological parameters. Short missions were associated with lower completeness rates whereas severe illness or injury did not result in reduced data capture.

Factors determining level of hospital care and its association with outcome after resuscitation from pre-hospital pulseless electrical activity.

BACKGROUND: Patients resuscitated from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) with pulseless electrical activity (PEA) as initial cardiac rhythm are not always treated in intensive care units (ICUs): some are admitted to high dependency units with various level of care, others to ordinary wards. Aim of this study was to describe the factors determining level of hospital care after OHCA with PEA, post-resuscitation care and survival. METHODS: Adult OHCA patients with PEA (n = 221), who were resuscitated in southern Finland between 2010 and 2013 were included, provided patient survived to hospital admission. The patients were divided into four groups according to the level of hospital care provided: ordinary ward and Level 1-3 ICUs. Differences in patient characteristics, post-resuscitation care and survival were compared between the groups. RESULTS: Most patients (62.4%) were treated at Level 2 ICUs. Longer time to ROSC and advanced age decreased admission rate to Level 2 or 3 post-resuscitation care, whereas good pre-arrest CPC (1-2) increased the admission rate to Level 2/3 ICUs independently. Treatment with targeted temperature management (TTM) (4.1%) or early coronary angiography (3.2%) were very rare. Prognostic decisions were made earlier in the lower treatment intensity groups (p < 0.01). One-year survival rate was 24.0, 17.1% survived with good neurological outcome. Neurological outcome was better with more intensive care. After adjustment, level of care was not independent predictor for outcome: only return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) time, cardiac arrest cause and pre-arrest performance affected independently to 1-year survival, age and ROSC for neurologic outcome. CONCLUSIONS: PEA are usually admitted to Level 2 ICUs for post-resuscitation care in the capital area of Finland. Age, ROSC and pre-arrest CPC were independent predictors for level of post-resuscitation care. TTM and early CAG were rare and provided only for Level 3 ICU patients. Prognostication was earlier in lower level of care units. Good neurologic survival was more common with more intensive level of post-resuscitation care. After adjustment, level of care was not independent predictor for survival or neurologic outcome: only ROSC, cardiac arrest cause and pre-arrest performance predicted 1-year survival; age and ROSC neurologic outcome.

End-tidal carbon dioxide output in manual cardiopulmonary resuscitation versus active compression-decompression device during prehospital quality controlled resuscitation: a case series study.

BACKGROUND: Active compression-decompression (ACD) devices have enhanced end-tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO2) output in experimental cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) studies. However, the results in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) patients have shown inconsistent outcomes, and earlier studies lacked quality control of CPR attempts. We compared manual CPR with ACD-CPR by measuring ETCO2 output using an audiovisual feedback defibrillator to ensure continuous high quality resuscitation attempts. METHODS: 10 witnessed OHCAs were resuscitated, rotating a 2 min cycle with manual CPR and a 2 min cycle of ACD-CPR. Patients were intubated and the ventilation rate was held constant during CPR. CPR quality parameters and ETCO2 values were collected continuously with the defibrillator. Differences in ETCO2 output between manual CPR and ACD-CPR were analysed using a linear mixed model where ETCO2 output produced by a summary of the 2 min cycles was included as the dependent variable, the patient as a random factor and method as a fixed effect. These comparisons were made within each OHCA case to minimise confounding factors between the cases. RESULTS: Mean length of the CPR episodes was 37 (SD 8) min. Mean compression depth was 76 (SD 1.3) mm versus 71 (SD1.0) mm, and mean compression rate was 100 per min (SD 6.7) versus 105 per min (SD 4.9) between ACD-CPR and manual CPR, respectively. For ETCO2 output, the interaction between the method and the patient was significant (P<0.001). ETCO2 output was higher with manual CPR in 6 of the 10 cases. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that quality controlled ACD-CPR is not superior to quality controlled manual CPR when ETCO2 is used as a quantitative measure of CPR effectiveness. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT00951704; Results.

A survey of front-line paramedics examining the professional relationship between paramedics and physician medical oversight.

OBJECTIVE: Paramedicine is often dependent on physician medical directors and their associated programs for direction and oversight. A positive relationship between paramedics and their oversight physicians promotes safety and quality care while a strained or ineffective one may threaten these goals. The objective of this study was to explore and understand the professional relationship between paramedics and physician medical oversight as viewed by front-line paramedics. METHODS: All active front-line paramedics from four municipal paramedic services involving three medical oversight groups in Ontario were invited to complete an online survey. RESULTS: Five hundred and four paramedics were invited to participate in the study, with 242 completing the survey (48% response rate); 66% male, 76% primary care paramedics with an average of 13 (SD=9) years of experience. Paramedics had neutral or positive perceptions regarding their autonomy, opportunities to interact with their medical director, and medical director understanding of the prehospital setting. Paramedics perceived medical directives as rigid and ambiguous. A significant amount of respondents reported a perception of having provided suboptimal patient care due to fear of legal or disciplinary consequences. Issues of a lack of support for critical thinking and a lack of trust between paramedics and medical oversight groups were often raised. CONCLUSIONS: Paramedic perceptions of physician medical oversight were mixed. Concerning areas identified were perceptions of ambiguous written directives and concerns related to the level of trust and support for critical thinking. These perceptions may have implications for the system of care and should be explored further.

Physician-staffed helicopter emergency medical service has a beneficial impact on the incidence of prehospital hypoxia and secured airways on patients with severe traumatic brain injury.

BACKGROUND: After traumatic brain injury (TBI), hypotension, hypoxia and hypercapnia have been shown to result in secondary brain injury that can lead to increased mortality and disability. Effective prehospital assessment and treatment by emergency medical service (EMS) is considered essential for favourable outcome. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a physician-staffed helicopter emergency medical service (HEMS) in the treatment of TBI patients. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study. Prehospital data from two periods were collected: before (EMS group) and after (HEMS group) the implementation of a physician-staffed HEMS. Unconscious prehospital patients due to severe TBI were included in the study. Unconsciousness was defined as a Glasgow coma scale (GCS) score ≤ 8 and was documented either on-scene, during transportation or by an on-call neurosurgeon on hospital admission. Modified Glasgow Outcome Score (GOS) was used for assessment of six-month neurological outcome and good neurological outcome was defined as GOS 4-5. RESULTS: Data from 181 patients in the EMS group and 85 patients in the HEMS group were available for neurological outcome analyses. The baseline characteristics and the first recorded vital signs of the two cohorts were similar. Good neurological outcome was more frequent in the HEMS group; 42% of the HEMS managed patients and 28% (p = 0.022) of the EMS managed patients had a good neurological recovery. The airway was more frequently secured in the HEMS group (p < 0.001). On arrival at the emergency department, the patients in the HEMS group were less often hypoxic (p = 0.024). In univariate analysis HEMS period, lower age and secured airway were associated with good neurological outcome. CONCLUSION: The introduction of a physician-staffed HEMS unit resulted in decreased incidence of prehospital hypoxia and increased the number of secured airways. This may have contributed to the observed improved neurological outcome during the HEMS period. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov IDNCT02659046. Registered January 15th, 2016.

Alcohol use in the prehospital setting: a diagnostic challenge in patients treated by a physician staffed mobile intensive care unit.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol use among emergency patients has been studied earlier, but the data regarding alcohol use especially among critically ill and injured patients treated in the prehospital setting is scarce. The aim of this study was to evaluate the incidence of alcohol use and the characteristics of cases attended by a physician staffed mobile intensive care unit (MICU). FINDINGS: During a 2 month period, exhaled air alcohol concentration-measured as a part of routine patient examination in all adolescent and adult patients treated by the MICU-was recorded. The MICU encountered 258 patients, of which 82 could be tested for alcohol use. Of the tested patients 43 % gave a positive breath test result. Proportion of male patients providing a positive result in the breath test did not differ significantly those of women. The primary reason for not to test the patient was a decreased level of consciousness in one-fifth of the initial 258 patients. CONCLUSIONS: A significant proportion (47 %) of the encountered patients could not be tested due to their critical condition. Alcohol use was observed in 43 % of those capable of providing a breath test sample. The rate of positive tests seemed to be higher than those reported from emergency departments. Novel diagnostic methods to detect alcohol consumption in non-cooperative patients are warranted.

Pre-hospital severe traumatic brain injury - comparison of outcome in paramedic versus physician staffed emergency medical services.

BACKGROUND: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the leading causes of death and permanent disability. Emergency Medical Services (EMS) personnel are often the first healthcare providers attending patients with TBI. The level of available care varies, which may have an impact on the patient's outcome. The aim of this study was to evaluate mortality and neurological outcome of TBI patients in two regions with differently structured EMS systems. METHODS: A 6-year period (2005 - 2010) observational data on pre-hospital TBI management in paramedic-staffed EMS and physician-staffed EMS systems were retrospectively analysed. Inclusion criteria for the study were severe isolated TBI presenting with unconsciousness defined as Glasgow coma scale (GCS) score ≤ 8 occurring either on-scene, during transportation or verified by an on-call neurosurgeon at admission to the hospital. For assessment of one-year neurological outcome, a modified Glasgow Outcome Score (GOS) was used. RESULTS: During the 6-year study period a total of 458 patients met the inclusion criteria. One-year mortality was higher in the paramedic-staffed EMS group: 57 % vs. 42 %. Also good neurological outcome was less common in patients treated in the paramedic-staffed EMS group. DISCUSSION: We found no significant difference between the study groups when considering the secondary brain injury associated vital signs on-scene. Also on arrival to ED, the proportion of hypotensive patients was similar in both groups. However, hypoxia was common in the patients treated by the paramedic-staffed EMS on arrival to the ED, while in the physician-staffed EMS almost none of the patients were hypoxic. Pre-hospital intubation by EMS physicians probably explains this finding. CONCLUSION: The results suggest to an outcome benefit from physician-staffed EMS treating TBI patients. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov ID NCT01454648.

Post resuscitation care of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients in the Nordic countries: a questionnaire study.

BACKGROUND: Aim of this study was to compare post resuscitation care of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) patients in Nordic (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden) intensive care units (ICUs). METHODS: An online questionnaire was sent to Nordic ICUs in 2012 and was complemented by an additional one in 2014. RESULTS: The first questionnaire was sent to 188 and the second one to 184 ICUs. Response rates were 51 % and 46 %. In 2012, 37 % of the ICUs treated all patients resuscitated from OHCA with targeted temperature management (TTM) at 33 °C. All OHCA patients admitted to the ICU were treated with TTM at 33 °C more often in Norway (69 %) compared to Finland (20 %) and Sweden (25 %), p 0.02 and 0.014. In 2014, 63 % of the ICUs still use TTM at 33 °C, but 33 % use TTM at 36 °C. Early coronary angiography (CAG) and possible percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) was routinely provided for all survivors of OHCA in 39 % of the hospitals in 2012 and in 28 % of the hospitals in 2014. Routine CAG for all actively treated victims of OHCA was performed more frequently in Sweden (51 %) and in Norway (54 %) compared to Finland (13 %), p 0.014 and 0.042. CONCLUSIONS: Since 2012, TTM at 36 °C has been implemented in some ICUs, but TTM at 33 °C is used in majority of the ICUs. TTM at 33 or 36 °C and primary CAG are not routinely provided for all OHCA survivors and the criteria for these and ICU admission are variable. Best practices as a uniform approach to the optimal care of the resuscitated patient should be sought in the Nordic Countries.

Pulseless electrical activity and successful out-of-hospital resuscitation - long-term survival and quality of life: an observational cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to evaluate the long-term outcome of patients successfully resuscitated from pre-hospital cardiac arrest with initial pulseless electrical activity (PEA), because the long-term outcome of these patients is unknown. Survival, neurological status one year after cardiac arrest and self-perceived quality of life after five years were assessed. METHODS: This retrospective study included adult patients resuscitated from PEA between August 2001 and March 2003 in three urban areas in southern Finland. A validated questionnaire was sent to patients while neurological status according to the Cerebral Performance Category (CPC) -classification was assessed based on medical database notes recorded during follow-up evaluations. RESULTS: Out of 99 included patients in whom resuscitation was attempted, 41 (41%) were successfully resuscitated and admitted to hospital. Ten (10%) patients were discharged from hospital. Seven were alive after one year and six after five years following cardiac arrest. Five of the seven patients alive one year after resuscitation presented with the same functional level as prior to cardiac arrest. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with initial PEA have been considered to have poor prognosis, but in our material, half of those who survived to hospital discharge were still alive after 5 years. Their self-assessed quality of life seems to be good with only mild to moderate impairments in activities of daily life.

Evaluation of the effects of low temperature on performance of standard non-electric medical equipment at -21.5°C (-6.7°F) - a descriptive study on a real life challenge in the prehospital setting.

AIM OF THE STUDY: To our knowledge, there are no previous reports on the performance of medical equipment in cold conditions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of several plastic, single-use medical equipment exposed to cold outdoor temperature. METHODS: Medical equipment such as endotracheal tubes, suction catheters and intravenous lines were exposed to outdoor temperature of -21.5°C (-6.7°F) for 15 min. After 15 min the equipment underwent a manual stress test resembling normal prehospital use. RESULTS: After 15 min in -21.5°C (-6.7°F) during the stress test several equipment exhibited significant changes in properties as compared to room temperature. Mainly, loss of flexibility and connectivity was observed. Examples of these were fractures of endotracheal tubes and suction catheters, and permanent airway adapter loosening from a respirator breathing circuit. CONCLUSION: Plastic medical equipment has poor tolerance of cold conditions. Loss of equipment performance and properties could result in relevant harm to the patient. Retaining the equipment, e.g. in a closed backpack slows the rate of temperature decrease.

Does appropriate treatment of the primary underlying cause of PEA during resuscitation improve patients' survival?

AIM OF THE STUDY: We aimed to document how often patients received appropriate treatment of the primary cause underlying pulseless electrical activity (PEA) during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and how it affected their outcome. METHODS: Data were collected between 2003 and 2010 in Finland and Sweden. All adult patients who underwent in-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA) with PEA as the initial rhythm were included, if CPR was attempted. Patients were divided into two groups: those who received appropriate treatment of the primary cause during CPR (treatment of the primary cause group) and those who received conventional CPR (non-specific treatment group). Survival between groups was compared and a multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed to exclude the effect of possible confounders. RESULTS: Of 104 study patients, 19 (18%) received treatment of the primary cause and 85 (82%) received non-specific treatment. 30-Days survival of patients in treatment of primary cause group was superior compared to patients in the non-specific treatment group: 6 (32%) vs. 9 (11%) were alive 30 days after IHCA, p=0.03. Multivariable analysis suggested that treatment of the primary cause improves the odds of survival 2.5-fold, but this was not statistically significant. Age was the only significant independent prognostic factor for 30-days survival. CONCLUSION: During CPR, only a fifth of patients received appropriate treatment of the primary cause underlying PEA. Those patients were more likely to be alive 30 days after IHCA, but age turned out to be the only significant individual factor for better survival.

Conduct of emergency research in patients unable to give consent--experiences and perceptions of patients, their consent providing next of kin, and treating physicians following a prehospital resuscitation trial.

OBJECTIVE: According to a directive of the European Parliament, informed consent is required to conduct a clinical trial also in emergencies when the patient is unable to provide consent. In these cases surrogate consent can be obtained from the patient's next of kin. There are no reports describing how patients and their next of kin perceive this policy. The perceptions of patients and their spouses involved in an emergency trial conducted under surrogate consent were surveyed. METHODS: A survey was sent to survivors of prehospital cardiac arrest, to consent providers regardless of patient outcome, and to physicians who had recruited the patients. RESULTS: 11 (92%) patients, 17 (68%) consent providers, and all physicians returned the survey. All held a positive attitude towards emergency research and were willing to participate without own consent in a trial approved by an institutional review board (IRB). Opinions among responding groups were similar albeit a significant difference regarding the perceived capability of the consent provider to decide upon patient's enrolment. Spouses felt able to provide consent, but physicians were sceptical of this. Patients and their spouses would have appreciated additional information regarding the index trial after the acute phase. CONCLUSIONS: Emergency research was perceived positively by cardiac arrest victims and their spouses previously involved in a resuscitation trial. Possible own participation in an emergency trial without personal consent was considered acceptable. Patients and their spouses would prefer additional research information after enrolment.

[Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest]. / Sydämenpysähdys sairaalan ulkopuolella.

Cardiac arrest as the first symptom of coronary artery disease is not uncommon. Some of previously healthy people with sudden cardiac arrest may be saved by effective resuscitation and post-resuscitative therapy. The majority of cardiac arrest patients experience the cardiac arrest outside of the hospital, in which case early recognition of lifelessness, commencement of basic life support and entry to professional care without delay are the prerequisites for recovery. After the heart has started beating again, the clinical picture of post-resuscitation syndrome must be recognized and appropriate treatment utilized.

Prehospital therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest--from current concepts to a future standard.

Therapeutic hypothermia has been shown to improve survival and neurological outcome after prehospital cardiac arrest. Existing experimental and clinical evidence supports the notion that delayed cooling results in lesser benefit compared to early induction of mild hypothermia soon after return of spontaneous circulation. Therefore a practical approach would be to initiate cooling already in the prehospital setting. The purpose of this review was to evaluate current clinical studies on prehospital induction of mild hypothermia after cardiac arrest. Most reported studies present data on cooling rates, safety and feasibility of different methods, but are inconclusive as regarding to outcome effects.

Hypothermic preconditioning of donor organs prior to harvesting and ischaemia using ice-cold intravenous fluids.

To promote organ transplantation and viability, hypothermia has been applied as a protective agent for decades. Current management of organ preservation includes hypothermia as a component of static storage. In rare cases, hypothermic perfusion is initiated in the donor organs prior to harvesting but this requires invasive perfusion techniques. Therefore, hypothermic organ protection is currently achieved only after organ retrieval and onset of ischaemic injury cascades. The relevant mechanisms of cellular and organ damage involve ischaemia-reperfusion injury and apoptosis. In this hypothesis, we propose the possibility of inducing hypothermic protective effects prior to organ harvesting using infusion of ice-cold (+4 degrees C) intravenous fluid in the organ donor. This method of cooling to mild hypothermia (32-34 degrees C) has been found feasible in e.g. cardiac arrest victims and already during the ischaemic insult. We hypothesize that cooling with ice-cold fluid preceding organ harvesting would downregulate organ metabolism and oxygen consumption resulting in improved tolerance to ischaemia. Furthermore, according to existing evidence, mild hypothermia possesses anti-apoptotic effects and suppresses reperfusion associated inflammatory response. Finally, diabetes insipidus is often observed in the brain dead donor. Subsequent hypovolemia is conveniently treated with additional infusion of cold intravenous fluid. We offer this hypothesis as a simple method of improving donor organ viability via improved tolerance to ischaemia and reperfusion injury. This method of hypothermic preconditioning seems safe, inexpensive and easily applicable in virtually every institution treating organ donors. The feasibility and effects of this hypothesis could be further evaluated in comparison to current treatment protocols in laboratory settings including evaluation of organ preservation.

Statins for post resuscitation syndrome.

After sudden cardiac arrest, successful resuscitation and return of spontaneous circulation, a multi-faceted ischaemia/reperfusion related disorder develops. This condition now known as post resuscitation syndrome is characterised by marked increases in the inflammatory response and changes in coagulation profile and vascular reactivity. Additionally, the production of reactive oxygen species and activation of cytotoxic cascades of metabolism add to these injury mechanisms resulting in multiorgan perfusion deficits and dysfunction. Especially in the cerebrum these injuries may be the cause of significant morbidity and mortality. Recent evidence has shown that statins (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors) exert numerous beneficial effects in cardiovascular diseases irrespective of the lipid status. Remarkably, these pleiotropic effects seem to extended beyond cardiovascular diseases such as immunomodulative and antioxidative properties. We hypothesised that administration of statins early in the post resuscitation phase would prove beneficial in the resuscitated patient via several pleiotropic effects. These include inhibition of excessive coagulation and inflammatory response, suppression of oxygen radical production and improved vascular reactivity. The discussed effects are mediated via multiple pathways activated in the cardiac arrest victim, to which statins have been shown to have a beneficial modulating effect in experimental settings and non-cardiac arrest patients. To test this hypothesis in clinical practice, a randomized, controlled trial with sufficient power and standardised post resuscitation treatment would be necessary. The generally good tolerance of statin therapy with minimal adverse effects would support this experiment, although a parenteral form of the drug to ensure adequate dosage might be a prerequisite.