Percutaneous biliary stone clearance: is there still a need? A 10-year single-centre experience.

AIM: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of percutaneous biliary stone clearance in a single hepatopancreaticobiliary (HPB) centre. MATERIALS AND METHODS: All patients who underwent percutaneous biliary stone clearance between 2010 and 2020 at a HPB centre were identified from the radiology information system. Their demographic data, presentation, previous surgery, number/size of biliary calculi, success and complications were collected from patient records. Unpaired student's t-test was used to compare numerical variables and the Chi-square test was used to compare categorical data. RESULTS: Sixty-eight patients aged between 58.5-91.1 years underwent the procedure, and 42.6% (29/68) had the procedure due to surgically altered anatomy precluding endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). The most common presentation was cholangitis (62%). The success rate of percutaneous stone clearance was 92.7%. The average number of calculi was two (range 1-12). Of the patients included, 4.4% developed pancreatitis, 4.4% developed cholangitis, and 1.5% had hepatic artery branch pseudoaneurysm successfully treated with transarterial embolisation. There was no significant difference in success or complication rates between the different access sites (right lobe, left lobe, roux-loop, T-tube, p=0.7767). CONCLUSION: Percutaneous biliary stone clearance is safe and effective and will continue to play an important role where ERCP fails or is impossible due surgically altered anatomy.

Pancreatobiliary cytology in the multidisciplinary setting.

This review article discusses the role of endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration (EUS FNA) cytology in the clinical management of patients with pancreatic tumours in the setting of a multidisciplinary team (MDT). The commonest diagnosis encountered is pancreatic adenocarcinoma, which is seldom diagnosed early enough for surgical resection. Thus, cytology is likely to be the only form of diagnosis in the majority of cases. Nevertheless, about half the lesions discussed at the MDT meeting are lesions other than primary adenocarcinoma and a wide differential diagnosis must be considered in order to identify tumours, including neuroendocrine tumours, that are amenable to surgical resection. Cytology is not always definitive and the diagnosis may be helped by categorizing results according to whether they are malignant, suspicious, atypical/indeterminate, benign or inadequate. Discussion at MDT meetings and correlation with clinical and imaging findings along with review of cytology slides may allow equivocal results to be clarified before treatment is decided. Inadequate cytology results are avoided by rapid on-site evaluation of slides; although this is cost-effective in terms of overall patient care, attendance of cytopathologists on-site may not be feasible. At Imperial College NHS Trust, specially trained biomedical scientists successfully carry out rapid on-site evaluation.

Endoscopic ultrasound guided fine needle aspiration for the diagnosis of pancreatic cystic neoplasms: a meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Mucinous cystic neoplasms and intraductal papillary mucinous tumours have greater malignant potential than serous cystic neoplasms. EUS alone is inadequate for characterising these lesions but the addition of FNA may significantly improve diagnostic accuracy. The performance of EUS-FNA is highly variable in published studies. AIM: To determine the diagnostic accuracy of EUS-FNA to differentiate mucinous versus non-mucinous cystic lesions with cyst fluid analysis for cytology and carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) by performing a meta-analysis of published studies. METHODS: Relevant studies were identified via structured database search and included if they used a reference standard of definitive surgical histology or clinical follow-up of at least 6 months. Data from selected studies were pooled to give summary sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative likelihood ratios, diagnostic odds ratio and Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve. Pre-defined subgroup analysis was performed. RESULTS: Eighteen studies (published 2002-2011) were included, with a total of 1438 patients. For cytology, pooled sensitivity was 54(95%CI 49-59)% and specificity 93(90-95)%. The diagnostic odds ratio (DOR) was 13.3 (4.37-49.43), with I(2) of 77.1%. For CEA sensitivity was 63(59-67)% and specificity 88(83-91)%. The DOR was 10.76(6.29-18.41) with an I(2) of 25.4%. The diagnostic accuracy of EUS-FNA was enhanced in prospective studies and studies of <36 months duration. No impact of publication bias on our results was demonstrated. CONCLUSIONS: Fine-needle aspiration has moderate sensitivity but high specificity for mucinous lesions. EUS-FNA, when used in conjunction with cross sectional imaging, is a useful diagnostic tool for the correct identification of mucinous cysts.

What are the gastrointestinal endoscopic requirements of a cancer centre?

AIMS: To describe the elective endoscopy requirements of a cancer centre. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A prospective register of all patients referred from a cancer centre to our unit over a period of 1 year was maintained. Emergency procedures out of hours were not included. RESULTS: The Endoscopic Unit at the Chelsea and Westminster Hospital provides a service to the local population of southwest London and the Fulham Road branch of the Royal Marsden Hospital. Between 1 January and 31 December 2003, 3720 new National Health Service patients with cancer were seen at the Royal Marsden Hospital; 1423 of these patients were seen at the Fulham Road branch. In the same period, the Endoscopy Unit at the Chelsea and Westminster Hospital investigated 5270 patients. Of these, 426 patients (8.1%) were referred from the Royal Marsden Hospital. In total, these patients underwent 491 procedures. Two hundred and fifty-three patients were men, with a median age of 65 years (range 22-100), and 173 were women, with a median age of 58 years (range 18-100). The diagnostic procedures carried out included colonoscopy (n=125), upper gastrointestinal endoscopy (n=136), flexible sigmoidoscopy (n=90), endoscopic ultrasound (n=24), anorectal physiology measurement (n=5) and endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography (ERCP) (n=1). Therapeutic procedures included ERCP (biliary stents/sphincterotomy/stone extraction) (n=38), placement of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (n=29), balloon dilatation of oesophageal strictures (n=25), oesophageal, gastric, duodenal or colonic stent insertion or laser therapy (n=16), naso-jejunal tube insertion (n=1) and banding of oesophageal varices (n=1). All patients were treated as day cases. Four patients were admitted for observation after their investigation. All others were discharged home or back to the Royal Marsden Hospital. CONCLUSIONS: Cancer centres increasingly require diagnostic, palliative and therapeutic endoscopic support as part of the acute and follow-up management of patients. Many procedures are urgent. This study suggests that a significant number of patients being managed in a cancer centre will require endoscopic intervention and the range of procedures, equipment and skills required is wide.

The significance of rectal bleeding after pelvic radiotherapy.

BACKGROUND: Rectal bleeding after pelvic radiotherapy is often attributed to radiation proctitis and patients do not routinely undergo flexible endoscopy. AIMS: To assess the significance of bleeding after radiotherapy. METHODS: We maintained a prospective register of all such patients referred to our endoscopy unit. RESULTS: One hundred and thirty-nine men (median age 70 years; range 31-82), and 32 women (median age 61 years; range 30-81) were referred with rectal bleeding (median 2 years; range 0-21) after pelvic radiotherapy. Primary tumour sites were urological (n = 139), gastrointestinal (n = 7) and gynaecological (n = 25). Ninety patients had bleeding alone; 81 had other symptoms. One hundred and forty-one had typical radiation proctitis; in 65 this was the sole diagnosis; eight had cancer, nine had high-risk adenomas, and six had three or more small adenomas. Ninety-five other diagnoses were made. Eleven (73%) patients with advanced polyps or cancer required only flexible sigmoidoscopy to make the diagnosis, while four (27%) diagnoses were made only after colonoscopy; 47% of these patients had no other symptoms apart from rectal bleeding. CONCLUSIONS: After pelvic radiotherapy, clinical symptoms are not reliable in differentiating between radiation proctitis alone or more significant pathology. It is mandatory that all patients with new onset rectal bleeding are investigated with, at least, flexible sigmoidoscopy.

Self-expanding metal stents for the palliation of malignant gastroduodenal obstruction in patients unsuitable for surgical bypass.

BACKGROUND: The primary therapeutic goals in patients with gastroduodenal obstruction secondary to advanced malignancy are the re-introduction of an enteral diet and early discharge. The endoscopic placement of expandable metal stents has been proposed as an alternative technique for palliation in patients not suitable for surgery. AIM: To review our experience with gastroduodenal metal stent insertion for the palliation of malignant gastric and duodenal obstruction. METHODS: A retrospective review was conducted of the notes of all patients who underwent gastroduodenal stent insertion in our unit. RESULTS: Forty patients (mean age, 64.5 years; range, 34-93 years) underwent insertion of an enteral stent for malignant gastroduodenal obstruction. The primary tumour was gastric in 20 patients, pancreatico-biliary in 15 and metastatic in five. A stent was successfully placed in all cases. Thirty-two patients have subsequently died, the median (range) survival being 7 weeks (1 week to 10 months). Thirty-three patients (82.5%) were discharged from hospital. During follow-up, 12 patients (30%) returned to a solid diet, 20 (50%) required a soft diet, six (15%) tolerated liquids and two (5%) were unable to tolerate any enteral nutrition. CONCLUSION: The use of enteral stents achieves good palliation, allowing discharge from hospital and re-introduction of an enteral diet.

Use of fibrin glue (beriplast) in the management of bleeding gastric varices.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Gastric variceal bleeding is a serious complication of portal hypertension. The optimum endoscopic treatment of bleeding gastric varices is yet to be defined. We evaluated the use of Beriplast, which is a solution of fibrinogen and thrombin, in controlling gastric variceal bleeding. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Fifteen patients presenting with gastric variceal bleeding were entered into an open trial of endoscopic gastric intravariceal injection treatment with Beriplast (fibrin sealant) and followed for up to 1 month after endoscopic treatment. RESULTS: There was failure to control bleeding in one patient. Four patients had rebleeding after the index bleed. All four were reinjected with Beriplast, and the bleeding was controlled in three. All patients were followed for 30 days, and the 30-day mortality following injection treatment was one. Fourteen patients were discharged from the hospital after the first episode of gastric variceal bleeding. None of the patients had injection-induced complications. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that Beriplast is a safe and simple endoscopic treatment option and is very effective in controlling gastric variceal bleeding.

Endoscopic balloon dilatation versus endoscopic sphincterotomy for the removal of bile duct stones: a prospective randomised trial.

BACKGROUND: Endoscopic balloon dilatation (EBD) of the sphincter of Oddi has been proposed as an alternative therapy with possible advantages, as compared with endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES), for removal of bile duct stones. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In a randomised study, we compared the efficacy and complication rate of the two techniques in 202 patients with common bile duct stones. Patients were followed up for 12 months. RESULTS: A total of 103 patients were randomised to the EBD group and 99 to the ES group. Overall duct clearance was 87.1% and did not differ between the two groups (EBD 87.4%; ES 86.9%). The complication rate at 24 hours was 6.8% in the EBD group and 3.0% in the ES group (NS). Complications during follow up were 11.7% and 15.2% respectively (NS). A multivariate logistic regression analysis showed only the size of the largest stone to be predictive of success for either technique. CONCLUSION: Endoscopic balloon dilatation offers no significant advantage over the well established technique of endoscopic sphincterotomy for the removal of bile duct stones.

MnDPDP enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of focal liver lesions.

Mangafodipir trisodium (MnDPDP) is a contrast agent for use in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the liver. The agent is taken up by normal hepatocytes resulting in increased signal on T1-weighted imaging, and is excreted in the biliary system. Hepatocyte-containing liver neoplasms such as hepatomas or focal nodular hyperplasia (FNH), take up MnDPDP and demonstrate varying degrees of enhancement. Metastatic liver deposits and primary liver tumours of non-hepatocyte origin do not typically enhance with MnDPDP thus increasing their conspicuity compared with pre-contrast T1-weighted images. Metastases may demonstrate rim enhancement particularly on delayed imaging at 24 h, which can increase their conspicuity, thus allowing better visualization of small lesions. Functional biliary obstruction due to liver metastases can also result in wedge shaped areas of parenchymal enhancement. The MRI features of various focal liver after continuance with lesions following MnDPDP are discussed and illustrated including primary lesions such as hepatoma and secondary metastases.

Management of acute variceal haemorrhage.

Endoscopic therapy and in particular endoscopic variceal banding ligation, in experienced hands, is the treatment of choice for acute variceal bleeding which remains a major cause of death in patients with cirrhosis and portal hypertension. Pharmacological therapy with Glypressin or somatostatin can be useful to gain time when the endoscopic expertise is not available or to help to obtain a clearer endoscopic view. Transjugular intrahepatic porto-systemic stent shunt is currently used for endoscopic failures, producing similar results with the surgical portacaval shunts. Which one of the two should be preferred, since they both work best in relatively compensated patients, should be a balance between the available surgical and radiological expertise, the urgency of the situation and the expected course of the disease.

Splanchnic and systemic haemodynamic response to volume changes in patients with cirrhosis and portal hypertension.

We investigated the haemodynamic response to volume depletion and subsequent repletion in patients with cirrhosis and portal hypertension. Twelve patients with compensated cirrhosis and portal hypertension were included in the study. The haemodynamic changes occurring after removal of approx. 15% of the blood volume, and subsequently after isovolume repletion with colloid, were assessed. Baseline haemodynamic measurements showed increased cardiac output and a systemic vascular resistance at the lower limit of normal. The hepatic venous pressure gradient (HVPG) was increased, at 18 mmHg. After depletion, arterial pressure, cardiac output and all right-heart-sided pressures decreased, and systemic vascular resistance increased. HVPG decreased to 16.0 mmHg. All the above changes were statistically significant. After blood volume restitution, the haemodynamic values returned to baseline. In particular, an increase in HVPG was shown in four out of the twelve patients (two with ascites and two without), which was small in three of them. However, HVPG remained the same as or lower than the baseline in the other eight patients. Patients with cirrhosis and portal hypertension exhibit an abnormal haemodynamic response to blood volume depletion. After volume repletion, no increase in the portal pressure was noted in this group of patients as a whole, although four out of the twelve patients did show an increase, possibly due to extensive collateral circulation.

Hodgkin's disease in a patient with common variable immunodeficiency.

A 61 year old man with long standing common variable immunodeficiency presented with pyrexia, anaemia and leucopenia. A diagnoses of Hodgkin's disease of the bone marrow was made. The typical histopathological and immunophenotypic appearances were clearly distinct from those of T cell lymphoma with Reed-Sternberg-like cells which, in contrast to Hodgkin's disease, is a known complication of common variable immunodeficiency. Complete clinical and histological remission was achieved with combination chemotherapy. The latter was complicated by severe myelosuppression, unusually severe erosive mucositis and viral retinitis.

Metabolic effects of beta-adrenergic receptor blockade in advanced alcoholic cirrhosis.

It has been postulated that the adverse metabolic effects of beta-adrenergic blockade with propranolol in cirrhosis may be related to altered delivery and utilisation of oxygen, particularly in patients with advanced alcoholic liver disease (ALD). Consequently, in 10 patients with decompensated ALD, we assessed (a) systemic and hepatic oxygen delivery (DO2), extraction ratio (%O2E) and consumption (VO2), (b) myocardial VO2 (assessed by the rate-pressure product [RPP], together with full systemic and splanchnic haemodynamics) and (c) hepatic redox state (HRS), measured indirectly by the arterial ketone body ratio (KBR i.e. ratio of acetoacetate/beta-hydroxybutyrate), prior to and following intravenous propranolol (0.1-2 mg/kg). Results are expressed as mean +/- S.E.M. Propranolol reduced DO2 (700 +/- 33 vs. 583 +/- 32 ml/min/m2, p < 0.05) and myocardial VO2 (RPP 72 vs. 58, p < 0.05). The %O2E increased however, (18.5 +/- 1.3 vs. 22.6 +/- 1.6%, p < 0.05), resulting in unaltered systemic VO2 (127 +/- 7.3 vs. 131 +/- 6.9 ml/min/m2, p > 0.10). Similarly hepatic VO2 did not change. KBR was not altered (0.44 +/- 0.08 vs. 0.48 +/- 0.07), and in fact improved in two patients (Child C12 and C13) from 0.17 to 0.34 and 0.12 to 0.27, respectively. In conclusion, the results of this study suggest that an underlying O2 debt exists in patients with advanced alcoholic cirrhosis and that beta-adrenergic blockade with propranolol 'normalises' the O2 supply-consumption relationship resulting in more efficient O2 utilisation without adversely affecting HRS. The mechanism of this action may be related to the antagonism of beta 2-mediated arteriovenous shunting resulting in appropriate blood redistribution.

Assessment of the percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy feeding tube as part of an integrated approach to enteral feeding.

The insertion of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy has been well documented. The possible benefits for patient nutrition and nursing practice have, however, not been assessed. We report a study of enteral feeding by percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy in 30 patients, the majority with a persistent vegetative state. All patients had previously been fed through a nasogastric tube using manual administration and a dietitian assessed protein calorie intake. Based upon body mass index (weight/height2), midarm circumference and triceps skinfold thickness, 20 (67%) were malnourished, with 10 patients having a body mass index less than 17 (severe malnutrition); attributed to high rates of both tube displacement and feed regurgitation. Patients were observed over six to 12 months after percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy insertion combined with overnight continuous pump feeding. All patients attained a body mass index greater than 17, and 17 (56%) of the total number achieved the normal range with no change in protein-calorie intake (pre: 2110 kcal, post: 1880 kcal). Complications of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy in the study group included peritonitis (one), tube site infection (two) and displacement (two); all without serious sequelae. As part of an integrated approach percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy proved a safe and efficient method of enteral feeding and justifies wider consideration in the United Kingdom.

Pathophysiology of portal hypertension.

Portal hypertension is characterised by alterations in the splanchnic and systemic circulation associated with the development of portosystemic collateral channels, the most important of which are found in lower oesophagus and stomach. Bleeding from these gastro-oesophageal varices represents the major clinical complication and over the last decade there has been considerable interest in the pharmacological management of this condition. The factors underlying the development and maintenance of portal hypertension and the pathogenesis of variceal rupture are as yet not fully understood. Whilst an increase in portal vascular resistance, as a consequence of liver disease, appears to be the primary event in the majority of cases, increasing attention has focused on the potential importance of enhanced circulating levels of vasoactive compounds coupled with a proposed reduction in vascular sensitivity to endogenous vasoconstrictors. Consequently, portal hypertension is now being more widely considered as a multi-organ disorder associated with changes in blood flow within both systemic and splanchnic vascular beds. This article reviews the factors currently implicated in the development and maintenance of portal hypertension and considers the pathogenesis of variceal bleeding.

Single, total paracentesis for tense ascites: sequential hemodynamic changes and right atrial size.

Hemodynamic changes induced by a single, total paracentesis were evaluated in 21 patients with tense ascites from whom 4 to 16 L of ascites were drained over 2 to 8 hr with no serious complications. At 60 min, compared to baseline, there was an increase in cardiac output (7.7 +/- 0.5 to 8.5 +/- 0.6 L/min, p less than 0.02) and a tendency for right atrial pressure to decrease (9.3 +/- 0.8 to 7.50 +/- 0.8 mm Hg, NS), with no change in pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (10.9 +/- 0.9 to 10.7 +/- 0.9 mm Hg). Between 3 and 12 hr later, there was a drop in right atrial pressure, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure and cardiac output to 5.6 +/- 0.6 (p less than 0.02), 7.2 +/- 0.8 mm Hg (p less than 0.002) and 7.2 +/- 0.6 L/min (NS) respectively, indicative of the development of relative hypovolemia and suggesting that therapeutic plasma expansion is appropriate at this time. Two-dimensional echocardiography before paracentesis (n = 8) showed a reduction in the right to left atrium area ratio as compared with values in patients with minimal ascites (0.54 +/- 0.04 vs 0.82 +/- 0.02, p less than 0.0001). This technique may help in identifying patients with right atrial compression caused by tense ascites.

Haemodynamic and pharmacokinetic study of intravenous fenoldopam in patients with hepatic cirrhosis.

1. The effect of intravenous fenoldopam-an arterial vasodilator-was assessed in twelve patients with cirrhosis and portal hypertension. Six patients had compensated (Grade A or B Child-Pugh classification) and six decompensated (Grade C) liver disease. 2. A significant dose dependent reduction in systemic blood pressure with a concomitant fall in systemic vascular resistance and increase in cardiac index was observed. Estimated portal pressure (WHVP-FHVP) increased (15.4 +/- 3.2 to 19.3 +/- 3.7 mm Hg, P less than 0.05) due to a rise in wedged hepatic venous pressure (24.6 +/- 4.3 to 29.0 +/- 5.8 mm Hg, P less than 0.05). Hepatic blood flow did not change significantly. Similar haemodynamic effects were observed in both compensated and decompensated patients. 3. Fenoldopam plasma clearance and ICG clearance were found to decrease with increasing infusion concentration, indicating possible increase of the intrahepatic shunting. 4. With the observed rise in portal pressure there must be some concern with respect to the long-term use of this drug in patients with previous variceal bleeding.